Passiflora

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Passiflora
OQ Passion flower.jpg
Passiflora incarnata
Parcha granadilla.JPG
P. quadrangularis unripe fruit
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Passifloraceae
Subfamily: Passifloroideae
Tribe: Passifloreae
Genus: Passiflora
L.
Type species
Passiflora incarnata L. [1]
Species

About 550, see list

Synonyms [2]
List

Passiflora, known also as the passion flowers or passion vines, is a genus of about 550 species of flowering plants, the type genus of the family Passifloraceae.

Description

Vegetative characteristics

They are mostly tendril-bearing vines, with some being shrubs or trees. They can be woody or herbaceous. [3]

Generative characteristics

Passion flowers produce regular and usually showy flowers with a distinctive corona. There can be as many as eight coronal series, as in the case of P. xiikzodz. [3] The flower is pentamerous and ripens into an indehiscent fruit with numerous seeds.

Distribution

Passiflora has a largely neotropic distribution, unlike other genera in the family Passifloraceae, which includes more Old World species (such as the genus Adenia ). The vast majority of Passiflora are found in Mexico, Central America, the United States and South America, although there are additional representatives in Southeast Asia and Oceania. [4] New species continue to be identified: for example, P. xishuangbannaensis and P. pardifolia have only been known to the scientific community since 2005 and 2006, respectively.

Some species of Passiflora have been naturalized beyond their native ranges. For example, the blue passion flower (P. caerulea) now grows wild in Spain. [5] The purple passionfruit (P. edulis) and its yellow relative flavicarpa have been introduced in many tropical regions as commercial crops.

Ecology

P foetida bracts.jpg
Stinking passion flower or Wild water lemon (P. foetida) bracts with insect-catching hairs.
Sword-billed Hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera).jpg
The sword-billed hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera) is adapted to feed on Passiflora mixta and similar flowers.
Passiflora in Canary Islands.JPG
An introduced Passiflora in the Canary Islands.
Passiflora white.JPG
Passiflora foetida in Tumkur, India
PassiFloraRed.jpg
Red colored passion flower in Mysore, India

Passion flowers have floral structures adapted for biotic pollination. Pollinators of Passiflora include bumblebees, carpenter bees (e.g., Xylocopa sonorina ), wasps, bats, and hummingbirds (especially hermits such as Phaethornis ); some others are additionally capable of self-pollination. Passiflora often exhibit high levels of pollinator specificity, which has led to frequent coevolution across the genus. The sword-billed hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera) is a notable example: it, with its immensely elongated bill, is the sole pollinator of 37 species of high Andean Passiflora in the supersection Tacsonia. [6]

Bud of the passion flower Knospe der Passionsblume.JPG
Bud of the passion flower
Passion flower bloom in water 20190910 110006-cr.jpg
Passion flower bloom in water

The leaves are used for feeding by the larvae of a number of species of Lepidoptera. Famously, they are exclusively targeted by many butterfly species of the tribe Heliconiini. The many defensive adaptations visible on Passiflora include diverse leaf shapes (which help disguise their identity), colored nubs (which mimic butterfly eggs and can deter Heliconians from ovipositing on a seemingly crowded leaf), extrafloral nectaries, trichomes, variegation, and chemical defenses. [7] These, combined with adaptations on the part of the butterflies, were important in the foundation of coevolutionary theory. [8] [9]

Recent studies have shown that passiflora both grow faster and protect themselves better in high-nitrogen soils. In low-nitrogen environments, passiflora focus on growth rather than defense and are more vulnerable to herbivores. [10]

The following lepidoptera larvae are known to feed on Passiflora:

The generally high pollinator and parasite specificity in Passiflora may have led to the tremendous morphological variation in the genus. It is thought to have among the highest foliar diversity among all plant genera, [16] with leaf shapes ranging from unlobed to five-lobed frequently found on the same plant. [17] Coevolution can be a major driver of speciation, and may be responsible for the radiation of certain clades of Passiflora such as Tacsonia.

The bracts of the stinking passion flower are covered by hairs which exude a sticky fluid. Many small insects get stuck to this and get digested to nutrient-rich goo by proteases and acid phosphatases. Since the insects usually killed are rarely major pests, this passion flower seems to be a protocarnivorous plant. [18]

Banana passion flower or "banana poka" (P. tarminiana), originally from Central Brazil, is an invasive weed, especially on the islands of Hawaii. It is commonly spread by feral pigs eating the fruits. It overgrows and smothers stands of endemic vegetation, mainly on roadsides. Blue passion flower (P. caerulea) is an invasive species in Spain and considered likely to threaten ecosystems there. [5]

On the other hand, some species are endangered due to unsustainable logging and other forms of habitat destruction. For example, the Chilean passion flower ( P. pinnatistipula ) is a rare vine growing in the Tropical Andes southwards from Venezuela between 2,500 and 3,800 metres (8,200 and 12,500 ft) altitude, and in Coastal Central Chile, where it only occurs in a few tens of square kilometres of fog forest by the sea, near Zapallar. P. pinnatistipula has a round fruit, unusual in Tacsonia group species like banana passion flower and P. mixta , with their elongated tubes and brightly red to rose-colored petals.

Notable and sometimes economically significant pathogens of Passiflora are several sac fungi of the genus Septoria (including S. passiflorae ), the undescribed proteobacterium called "Pseudomonas tomato" (pv. passiflorae), the Potyvirus passionfruit woodiness virus , and the Carlavirus Passiflora latent virus .

Uses

Ornamental

Passiflora incarnata, one of the most common passion flowers Flickr - ggallice - Passiflora, Gainesville.jpg
Passiflora incarnata , one of the most common passion flowers
Passiflora entwine this 1880 Baxter process illustration by Joseph Martin Kronheim Joseph Martin Kronheim - The Sunday at Home 1880 - Revelation 22-17.jpg
Passiflora entwine this 1880 Baxter process illustration by Joseph Martin Kronheim

A number of species of Passiflora are cultivated outside their natural range for both their flowers and fruit. Hundreds of hybrids have been named; hybridizing is currently being done extensively for flowers, foliage and fruit. The following hybrids and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

During the Victorian era the flower (which in all but a few species lasts only one day) was very popular, and many hybrids were created using the winged-stem passion flower (P. alata), the blue passion flower (P. caerulea) and other tropical species.

Many cool-growing Passiflora from the Andes Mountains can be grown successfully for their beautiful flowers and fruit in cooler Mediterranean climates, such as the Monterey Bay and San Francisco in California and along the western coast of the U.S. into Canada. One blue passion flower or hybrid even grew to large size at Malmö Central Station in Sweden. [22]

Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating extranuclear inheritance; paternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA has been documented in this genus. [23] The plastome of the two-flowered passion flower (P. biflora) has been sequenced.

Fruit

Ripe fruits of Passiflora edulis Passion fruits - whole and halved.jpg
Ripe fruits of Passiflora edulis

Most species have round or elongated edible fruit from 50 to 200 millimetres (2 to 8 in) long and 25–50 mm (1–2 in) across, depending upon the species or cultivar.

Ayahuasca analog

A native source of beta-Carbolines (e.g., passion flower in North America) is mixed with Desmanthus illinoensis (Illinois bundleflower) root bark to produce a hallucinogenic drink called prairiehuasca, which is an analog of the shamanic brew ayahuasca. [28]

Traditional medicine and dietary supplement

P. incarnata (maypop) leaves and roots have a long history of use as a traditional medicine by Native Americans in North America and were adapted by European colonists. [29] [30] The fresh or dried leaves of maypop are used to make a tea that is used as a sedative. [29] Passionflower as dried powder or an extract is used as a dietary supplement. [29] There is insufficient clinical evidence for using passionflower to treat any medical condition. [29] [30]

Passionflower is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for use as a food ingredient in the United States. [31]

Adverse effects

Passion flower is not recommended during pregnancy because it may induce contractions. [29] [30] Consuming passion flower products may cause drowsiness, nausea, dizziness, abnormal heart rhythms, asthma, or rhinitis. [29] [30]

Chemistry

Chrysin.svg
Chrysin, a commercially important flavone found in the blue passion flower, P. caerulea
Harman.svg
Harman, a harmala alkaloid found in many species of Passiflora

Many species of Passiflora have been found to contain beta-carboline harmala alkaloids, [30] [32] [33] some of which are MAO inhibitors. The flower and fruit have only traces of these chemicals, but the leaves and the roots often contain more. [33] The most common of these alkaloids is harman, but harmaline, harmalol, harmine, and harmol are also present. [30] [32] The species known to bear such alkaloids include: P. actinia , P. alata (winged-stem passion flower), P. alba , P. bryonioides (cupped passion flower), P. caerulea (blue passion flower), P. capsularis , P. decaisneana , P. edulis (passion fruit), P. eichleriana , P. foetida (stinking passion flower), P. incarnata (maypop), P. quadrangularis (giant granadilla), P. suberosa , P. subpeltata and P. warmingii . [32]

Other compounds found in passion flowers are coumarins (e.g. scopoletin and umbelliferone), maltol, phytosterols (e.g. lutenin) and cyanogenic glycosides (e.g. gynocardin) which render some species, i.e. P. adenopoda , somewhat poisonous. Many flavonoids and their glycosides have been found in Passiflora, including apigenin, benzoflavone, homoorientin, 7-isoorientin, isoshaftoside, isovitexin (or saponaretin), kaempferol, lucenin, luteolin, n-orientin, passiflorine (named after the genus), quercetin, rutin, saponarin, shaftoside, vicenin and vitexin. Maypop, blue passion flower (P. caerulea), and perhaps others contain the flavone chrysin. Also documented to occur at least in some Passiflora in quantity are the hydrocarbon nonacosane and the anthocyanidin pelargonidin-3-diglycoside. [30] [32] [34]

The genus is rich in organic acids including formic, butyric, linoleic, linolenic, malic, myristic, oleic and palmitic acids as well as phenolic compounds, and the amino acid α-alanine. Esters like ethyl butyrate, ethyl caproate, n-hexyl butyrate and n-hexyl caproate give the fruits their flavor and appetizing smell. Sugars, contained mainly in the fruit, are most significantly d-fructose, d-glucose and raffinose. Among enzymes, Passiflora was found to be rich in catalase, pectin methylesterase and phenolase. [30] [32]

Etymology and names

Blue passion flower (P. caerulea) showing most elements of the Christian symbolism Passiflora caerulea (makro close-up).jpg
Blue passion flower (P. caerulea) showing most elements of the Christian symbolism
Passiflora 'Soi Fah', a.k.a. Krishnakamala in India Passiflora Krishnakamal Karnataka India.jpg
Passiflora 'Soi Fah', a.k.a.Krishnakamala in India

The passion in passion flower refers to the passion of Jesus in Christian theology; [35] the word passion comes from the Latin passio , meaning 'suffering'. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish Christian missionaries adopted the unique physical structures of this plant, particularly the numbers of its various flower parts, as symbols of the last days of Jesus and especially his crucifixion: [36]

The flower has been given names related to this symbolism throughout Europe since the 15th century. In Spain, it is known as espina de Cristo ('thorn of Christ'). Older Germanic names [38] include Christus-Krone ('Christ's crown'), Christus-Strauss ('Christ's bouquet'), [39] Dorn-Krone ('crown of thorns'), Jesus-Lijden ('Jesus' passion'), Marter ('passion') [40] or Muttergottes-Stern ('Mother of God's star'). [41]

Outside the Roman Catholic heartland, the regularly shaped flowers have reminded people of the face of a clock. In Israel they are known as "clock-flower" (שעונית) and in Greece as "clock plant" (ρολογιά); in Japan too, they are known as tokeisō (時計草, 'clock plant'). In Hawaiian, they are called lilikoʻi; [42] lī is a string used for tying fabric together, such as a shoelace, and liko means 'to spring forth leave'. [43]

In India, it is known as Krishnakamala because of its dark violet blue colour which resembles Bhagwan Krishna.

Taxonomy

Passiflora is the most species rich genus of both the family Passifloraceae and the tribe Passifloreae. With over 550 species, an extensive hierarchy of infrageneric ranks is required to represent the relationships of the species. The infrageneric classification of Passiflora not only uses the widely used ranks of subgenus, section and series, but also the rank of supersection.

The New World species of Passiflora were first divided among 22 subgenera by Killip (1938) in the first monograph of the genus. [16] More recent work has reduced these to 4, which are commonly accepted today (in order from most basally to most recently branching): [44]

Some studies have shown that the segregate Old World genera Hollrungia and Tetrapathaea are nested within Passiflora, and form a fifth subgenus (Tetrapathaea). [45] Other studies support the current four subgenus classification. [46]

Relationships below the subgenus level are not known with certainty and are an active area of research. The Old World species form two clades – supersection Disemma (part of subgenus Decaloba) and subgenus Tetrapathaea. The former is composed of 21 species divided into sections Disemma (three Australian species), Holrungiella (one New Guinean species) and Octandranthus (seventeen south and east Asian species). [47]

The remaining (New World) species of subgenus Decaloba are divided into seven supersections. Supersection Pterosperma includes four species from Central America and southern Mexico. Supersection Hahniopathanthus includes five species from Central America, Mexico and northernmost South America. Supersection Cicea includes nineteen species, with apetalous flowers. Supersection Bryonioides includes twenty-one species, with a distribution centered on Mexico. Supersection Auriculata includes eight species from South America, one of which is also found in Central America. Supersection Multiflora includes nineteen species. Supersection Decaloba includes 123 species. [48]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Passiflora edulis</i> Species of flowering plant in the passion flower family Passifloraceae

Passiflora edulis, commonly known as passion fruit, is a vine species of passion flower native to southern Brazil and Peru. It is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit. The fruit is a pepo, a type of berry, round to oval, either yellow or dark purple at maturity, with a soft to firm, juicy interior filled with numerous seeds. The fruit is both eaten and juiced, with the juice often added to other fruit juices to enhance aroma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passifloraceae</span> Family of flowering plants

The Passifloraceae are a family of flowering plants, containing about 750 species classified in around 27 genera.

<i>Passiflora foetida</i> Species of carnivorous plant

Passiflora foetida is a species of passion flower that is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, and much of South America. It has been introduced to tropical regions around the world, such as Southeast Asia, South Asia, Hawaii, Africa, and The Maldives. It is a creeping vine like other members of the genus, and yields an edible fruit. The specific epithet, foetida, means "stinking" in Latin and refers to the strong aroma emitted by damaged foliage.

<i>Passiflora caerulea</i> Species of flowering plant in the passion flower family Passifloraceae

Passiflora caerulea, the blue passionflower, bluecrown passionflower or common passion flower, is a species of flowering plant native to South America. It has been introduced elsewhere. It is a vigorous, deciduous or semi-evergreen tendril vine growing to 10 m (33 ft) or more. Its leaves are palmate, and its fragrant flowers are blue-white with a prominent fringe of coronal filaments in bands of blue, white, yellow, and brown. The ovoid orange fruit, growing to 6 cm (2 in), is edible, but is variously described as having a bland, undesirable, or insipid taste. In South America, the plant is known for its medicinal properties, and is used by both the Toba and the Maka peoples.

<i>Passiflora quadrangularis</i> Species of vine

Passiflora quadrangularis, the giant granadilla, barbadine (Trinidad), grenadine (Haiti), giant tumbo or badea, is a species of plant in the family Passifloraceae. It produces the largest fruit of any species within the genus Passiflora. It is a perennial climber native to the Neotropics, Despite the Granadilla in its Name, it is not a true Passionfruit

<i>Passiflora incarnata</i> Species of vine

Passiflora incarnata, commonly known as maypop, purple passionflower, true passionflower, wild apricot, and wild passion vine, is a fast-growing perennial vine with climbing or trailing stems. A member of the passionflower genus Passiflora, the maypop has large, intricate flowers with prominent styles and stamens. One of the hardiest species of passionflower, it is both found as a wildflower in the southern United States and in cultivation for its fruit and striking bluish purple blooms.

<i>Heliconius charithonia</i> Species of butterfly

Heliconius charithonia, the zebra longwing or zebra heliconian, is a species of butterfly belonging to the subfamily Heliconiinae of the family Nymphalidae. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1767 12th edition of Systema Naturae. The boldly striped black and white wing pattern is aposematic, warning off predators. And it’s the state butterfly of Florida.

<i>Passiflora tarminiana</i> Species of plant

Passiflora tarminiana is a species of passionfruit. The yellow fruits are edible and their resemblance to small, straight bananas has given it the name banana passionfruit in some countries. It is native to the uplands of tropical South America and is now cultivated in many countries. In Hawaii and New Zealand it is now considered an invasive species. It was given the name banana passionfruit in New Zealand, where passionfruit are also prevalent. In Hawaii, it is called banana poka. In its Latin American homeland, it is known as curuba, curuba de Castilla, or curuba sabanera blanca (Colombia); taxo, tacso, tagso, tauso (Ecuador); parcha, taxo (Venezuela), tumbo or curuba (Bolivia); tacso, tumbo, tumbo del norte, trompos, tintin, porocsho or purpur (Peru).

<i>Passiflora lutea</i> Species of vine

Passiflora lutea, commonly known as yellow passionflower, is a flowering perennial vine in the family Passifloraceae, native to the central and eastern United States. The vine has three-lobed leaves and small, yellowish-green, fringed flowers that appear in the summer, followed by green fruit that turn almost black at maturity. It grows in moist to wet habitats.

<i>Passiflora telesiphe</i> Species of vine

Passiflora telesiphe is a species of flowering plant in the family Passifloraceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.

<i>Passiflora loefgrenii</i> Species of vine

Passiflora loefgrenii, the garlic passion fruit, is a passion flower first formally described in 1997 by Fabio Augusto Vitta. The plant is named after Albert Löfgren, the first known collector.

<i>Passiflora suberosa</i> Species of plant

Passiflora suberosa is a species of passionflower that is native to the Americas. It is commonly known as corkystem passionflower due to the corkiness of older stems. Other common names include corky passion vine, cork-bark passion flower, corkstem passionflower and corky passionfruit. In Latin America it is called Meloncillo. It is possibly also cryptic and have multiple species in one.

Passion fruit woodiness virus (PWV) is a plant pathogenic virus in the genus Potyvirus and the virus family Potyviridae. Like other members of the genus Potyvirus, PWV is a monopartite strand of positive-sense, single-stranded RNA surrounded by a capsid made for a single viral encoded protein. The virus is a filamentous particle that measures about 745 nm in length.

<i>Passiflora bryonioides</i> Species of vine

Passiflora bryonioides, the cupped passionflower, is a plant in the genus Passiflora, family Passifloraceae. It is native to northern Mexico and the south-western United States (Arizona).

<i>Heliconius telesiphe</i> Species of butterfly

Heliconius telesiphe, the telesiphe longwing, is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. It was described by Edward Doubleday in 1847. It is found at mid-elevations in the Andes. Its habitat is cloud forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passion fruit (fruit)</span> Fruit of several passion flower species

The passion fruit is the fruit of a number of plants in the genus Passiflora.

Passiflora xiikzodz, the xiikzodz, is a species of flowering plant in the passion flower/passion fruit family Passifloraceae, native to southeastern Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala. The specific epithet is derived from the Mayan vernacular name for the species, and means "bat-wing". It is closely related to Passiflora itzensis but attempts to cross-pollinate the two species do not result in any offspring.

<i>Passiflora trifasciata</i> Species of flowering plant

Passiflora trifasciata is an endangered species of South American passionflower, native to the area spanning Ecuador to western Bolivia. Classified in subgenus Decaloba and supersection Decaloba, it is a liana with variegated leaves and small, fragrant white flowers.

References

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  23. ↑ E.g. Hansen et al. (2006)
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  32. 1 2 3 4 5 Duke (2008)
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  34. ↑ Dhawan, et al. (2002)
  35. ↑ Kostka, Arun Oswin. "Flowers in Christian Symbolism".
  36. ↑ Roger L. Hammer (6 January 2015). Everglades Wildflowers: A Field Guide to Wildflowers of the Historic Everglades, including Big Cypress, Corkscrew, and Fakahatchee Swamps. Falcon Guides. pp. 206–. ISBN   978-1-4930-1459-0.
  37. ↑ Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2001 ed.). Wordsworth Reference. p. 826.
  38. ↑ Marzell (1927)
  39. ↑ "Christ's flower" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927)
  40. ↑ "Martyr" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927)
  41. ↑ Muttergottes-Schuzchen (or -Schurzchen) is a nonsensical misreading of Marzell (1927)
  42. ↑ Mary Kawena Pukui; Samuel Hoyt Elbert (2003). "lookup of lilikoʻi". in Hawaiian Dictionary. Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library, University of Hawaii Press . Retrieved 2 November 2014.
  43. ↑ Pukui et al. (1992)
  44. ↑ Feuillet, C.; MacDougal, J. (2004). "A new infrageneric classification of Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae)". Passiflora. 13 (2): 34–35, 37–38.
  45. ↑ Krosnick, S.E.; Ford, A.J.; Freudenstein, J.V. (2009). "Taxonomic Revision of Passiflora Subgenus Tetrapathea Including the Monotypic Genera Hollrungia and Tetrapathea (Passifloraceae), and a New Species of Passiflora". Systematic Botany. 34 (2): 375–385. doi:10.1600/036364409788606343. S2CID   86038282.
  46. ↑ Hansen, K.A.; Gilbert, L.E.; Simpson, B.B.; Downie, S.R.; Cervi, A.C.; Jansen, R.K. (2006). "Phylogenetic Relationships and Chromosome Number Evolution in Passiflora". Systematic Botany. 31 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1600/036364406775971769. S2CID   4820527.
  47. ↑ Shawn Elizabeth Krosnick, PhD thesis, Phylogenetic relationships and patterns of morphological evolution in the Old Word species of Passiflora (subgenus Decaloba: supersection Disemma and subgenus Tetrapathaea) Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  48. ↑ "MBG: Research: Passiflora Research Network". mobot.org.
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