In its first general election in 1999, the party won five seats in the Dewan Rakyat.[15] However, a resurgence by the ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) in 2004 reduced PKR to a single parliamentary seat.[16][17] The 2008 general election produced a substantial swing to the opposition; PKR increased its representation to 31 seats and helped the opposition form governments in five states.[18][19] The 2008 results precipitated the resignation of Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and saw the five-year political ban on Anwar Ibrahim lifted on 14 April 2008.[20]
The Pakatan Harapan (PH) coalition, of which PKR is a principal component, defeated Barisan Nasional at the 2018 general election, ending BN’s uninterrupted 60-year rule since independence and winning a record 47 seats. However, defections from the Azmin-aligned faction within PKR and the withdrawal of BERSATU triggered the collapse of the PH government in 2020 after just 22 months, leading to the 2020–2022 political crisis.[21] The party returned to government after the 2022 general election, which had resulted in Malaysia’s first hung parliament. A unity government arrangement between Pakatan Harapan, former rivals Barisan Nasional, and several Borneo-based parties enabled the formation of a federal administration led by Anwar Ibrahim to become the 10th Prime Minister of Malaysia.[22]
The party draws its strongest support from urban and semi-urban constituencies, particularly in the states of Selangor, Penang, Perak, Negeri Sembilan, Johor and the capital city of Kuala Lumpur. The party’s platform emphasises Reformasi-era priorities such as institutional reform, anti-corruption measures and social justice.[23]
History
Background
Anwar Ibrahim, founder and leader of the party
The economy of Malaysia was affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[24] The Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance at the time, Anwar Ibrahim has instituted a series of economic reforms and austerity measures in response. These actions were exacerbated when he tabled controversial amendments to the Anti-Corruption Act that sought to increase the powers of the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC).[25] The then Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad disagreed with these measures and ultimately sacked Anwar from all his posts.[26] This incident and the circumstances in which it happened led to a public outcry in what became known as the Reformasi movement, but it also resulted in the arrest and subsequent incarceration of Anwar on what many believed to be politically motivated charges of sexual misconduct and corruption.[27]
Once Anwar had been detained, the Reformasi movement continued to develop, with "Justice for Anwar" remaining a potent rallying call. Before his arrest, Anwar had designated his wife, Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, as the successor of the movement. Wan Azizah developed an enormous following, attracting thousands to her speeches. For a time, these followers held massive weekend street demonstrations, mostly in Kuala Lumpur but also occasionally in Penang and other cities, for "keadilan" (justice) and against Mahathir. During Anwar's police custody on September 1998, he was assaulted by then Inspector General Abdul Rahim Mohd Noor causing a black eye; the imagery of the black eye was adopted as a rallying symbol of demanded justice by his followers and eventually the party flag –jocularly known as the Bendera Mata Lebam ("Black Eye Flag")– designed by artist Syed Ahmad Syed Jamal.[29]
Building on the momentum of Reformasi, a political movement called the Social Justice Movement (Malay: Pergerakan Keadilan Sosial), also known as ADIL, was launched on 10 December 1998 and was led by Wan Azizah.[30][31] However, facing difficulties in registering ADIL as a political party, the Reformasi movement instead merged with the Muslim Community Union of Malaysia (Malay: Ikatan Masyarakat Islam Malaysia), a minor Islamic political party based in Terengganu, and relaunched it as the National Justice Party (Malay: Parti Keadilan Nasional), also known as PKN or Keadilan, on 4 April 1999. The registration was just in time for the new party to take part in the 1999 general election.[32] The launch of Keadilan put to rest months of speculation about whether Wan Azizah and Anwar would merely remain in ADIL, join PAS, or try to launch an internal coup in UMNO. Although Keadilan was multiracial, its primary target was middle-class, middle-of-the-road Malays, particularly from UMNO. The party has been noted as having rough similarities with the now-defunct multi-racial social democratic Parti Keadilan Masyarakat Malaysia.[33] The party was joined by the Democratic Action Party (DAP), the Malaysian People's Party (PRM) and the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) in a big tent alliance of liberals, socialists, and Islamists known as Barisan Alternatif to take on the ruling BN coalition in the 1999 general election.[34]
1999–2004: Early years
While parliament's term was set to end in June the next year, an early election was called in November under the pretext of avoiding "undesirable" behaviour during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan in December. International media speculated that Mahathir wanted an early election to be held before some 650,000 new voters became eligible to participate.[35][36]
In the lead-up to the election, seven activists, including Keadilan leaders; Vice-President Tian Chua, Gobalakrishnan Nagapan, Youth leader Ezam Mohd Nor, Fairus Izuddin and Dr Badrul Amin Baharun; were arrested between 27 and 30 September and as a result prevented from contesting.[37] Further arrests were made on 10 April 2001 and those arrested were subsequently charged and incarcerated under the Internal Security Act.[38] They became known as the Reformasi 10.[39]
With parliament dissolving on 11 November, parties were only left with 9 days' time to campaign between candidate nominations on 20 November and voting day on 29 November. The short campaign period drew criticism from the opposition, and the party entered the campaign with many of its key leaders under arrest. It also had to contend with the distribution of pornographic videocassettes implicating Anwar in the villages, as well as a lack of access to written and audiovisual media; the government denied opposition parties access to state-run public broadcaster Radio Televisyen Malaysia.[40][41] Thus, despite the party winning 11.67% of the total votes cast, it only managed to win five parliamentary seats. Notably, Wan Azizah managed to secure victory in Permatang Pauh; the seat formerly held by her husband, with a majority of 9,077 votes. The Barisan Alternatif as a whole gained 40.21% of the total votes cast with PAS winning 27 seats and DAP winning ten seats. The big opposition winner was PAS, which gained 20 seats as well as a majority in two state assemblies in Kelantan and Terangganu.
For the first time in Malaysia's history, UMNO, the dominant Malay-based party which had ruled the country for 40 years since independence, received less than half of the total vote of ethnic Malays. Despite losing 14 seats, two of which belonged to federal ministers, the BN coalition still secured a two-thirds majority of 148 seats.
The post election period saw negotiations between Keadilan and Parti Rakyat Malaysia (PRM) on a possible merger.[42] Despite some opposition in both parties to the move,[43][44] a 13-point Memorandum of Understanding was eventually signed by the two parties on 5 July 2002.[45] On 3 August 2003, the new merged entity was officially launched and assumed its current name.[46] However, as PRM had yet to be de-registered by the authorities, dissident members took the opportunity to convene a national congress and revive the party under former youth leader Hassan Abdul Karim.
Anwar Ibrahim speaking in 2005
As the new amendments to the party constitution had yet to be approved by the Registrar of Societies, candidates from PRM contested the 2004 general election using the symbol of the old National Justice Party.[47] The party fared poorly in the elections and only managed to retain one parliamentary seat, Permatang Pauh, despite winning 9% of the popular vote. The poor showing was later attributed to malapportionment and gerrymandering in the delineation of constituencies, with one estimate suggesting that on average, a vote for the BN government was worth 28 times the vote of a Keadilan supporter.[48][unreliable source?]
On 2 September 2004, the Federal Court overturned Anwar's sodomy conviction. As he had already served the entirety of his sentence for his corruption conviction, he was set free.[49] This unexpected turn of events came timely for PKR which was facing flagging morale due to its dismal performance in the elections.
In December 2005 PKR organised its second national congress.[50][unreliable source?] Among the motions passed was the New Economic Agenda[51] that envisioned a non-racial economic policy to replace the race-based New Economic Policy. PKR managed a breakthrough into Sarawak politics in May 2006, a state traditionally known as a BN stronghold. In that year's Sarawak state elections, Dominique Ng, a lawyer and activist, won in the Padungan constituency in Kuching, a majority Chinese locale. Keadilan lost narrowly in Saribas, a Malay-Melanau constituency by just 94 votes. PKR has also pursued an aggressive strategy of gaining personalities from within and outside politics. In July 2006, Khalid Ibrahim, a former CEO of Permodalan Nasional Berhad and Guthrie, was appointed as Treasurer of the PKR.
2008–2013: Pakatan Rakyat and Anwar's first return to politics
In the 2008 elections, PKR contested alongside DAP and PAS in a new coalition called Pakatan Rakyat. The party won 31 seats in parliament, while DAP and PAS won 28 and 23 seats respectively. The 82 seats won by the coalition denied BN a two-thirds majority against a backdrop of rises in inflation, crime, and ethnic tension.[52]
On 14 April 2008, Anwar's five-year ban from contesting in elections, imposed on anyone sentenced to longer than a year in jail, ended.[53] A gathering held by supporters numbering celebrating the end of the ban was dispersed by police.[54] Despite the ban, Anwar was seen as PKR's de facto leader even while imprisoned.[55]
Anwar returned to parliament on 28 August 2008, after a landslide victory in the 2008 Permatang Pauh by-election, triggered by Wan Azizah's resignation.[56][57] Quoted as saying "I'm glad to be back after a decade. The prime minister has lost the mandate of the country and the nation",[58][59] Anwar needed at least 30 government lawmakers to defect to form a government.[60][61]
In June 2010, Suara Keadilan's publication was suspended for publishing a report which claimed a government agency had gone bankrupt. The Home Ministry, which oversees Malaysia's newspapers, said it was not satisfied with the paper's explanation for the allegedly inaccurate report.[62]
In 2012, Anwar was acquitted of a separate sodomy charge from 2008. He was accused by Saiful Bukhari Azlan, his aide, of sodomising him.[63]
In 2014, the Party's Strategy Director then Vice-President-cum-Secretary-General, Rafizi Ramli initiated the failed Kajang Move in a bid to topple the 14th Menteri Besar of Selangor, Khalid Ibrahim, and install Anwar as his replacement. The political manoeuvre resulted in a nine-month political crisis within the state of Selangor and the Pakatan Rakyat coalition that also involved the palace of Selangor.[64] The crisis concluded with the appointment of PKR's Deputy President, Azmin Ali, as the 15th Menteri Besar of Selangor. Most analysts regarded the Kajang Move as a failure.[65],
Concurrently, Anwar's acquittal in 2012 was overturned by the Court of Appeal, and he was sentenced to five years in prison. This prevented him from standing as a candidate in the 2014 Kajang by-election and potentially becoming Menteri Besar, although he remained a member of parliament pending the outcome of his appeal. In 2015, his conviction was upheld and he was sent to prison.[66][67]
When the party as part of the Pakatan Harapan coalition formed the federal government after securing a majority in the 2018 general election, Anwar was granted a full pardon by the country's monarch, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Widely considered to be the prime minister-in-waiting,[68][69] Anwar returned to parliament once again through the 2018 Port Dickson by-election, dubbed the "PD Move".
The party subsequently suffered from an exodus of members aligned with Azmin nationwide,[73][74][75][76][77] including elected representatives at the state level; Chong Fat Full, whose resignation and defection to allowed the Johor state government to be taken over by PN,[78]Robert Ling Kui Ee of Sidam and Azman Nasrudin of Lunas, whose resignations and defection allowed the Kedah state government to be taken over by PN,[79][80]Daroyah Alwi, then the speaker of the Selangor legislative assembly,[81] and Afif Bahardin in Penang.[82] Meanwhile, Haniza Talha, the PKR Women's Chief, was expelled from the party, as was Penang assemblyman Zulkifli Ibrahim,[83] and later Sabah assemblyman Kenny Chua Teck Ho.[84]
Defections continued into 2021 when two MPs, Steven Choong of Tebrau and Larry Sng of Julau became independents on 27 and 28 February. They would go on to form Parti Bangsa Malaysia (PBM) and declare their support for the ruling Perikatan Nasional coalition.[85] The last PKR MP to leave the party was PKR vice-president Xavier Jayakumar of Kuala Langat, who cited 'frustrations' by the events of the past year and subsequently became a Perikatan-aligned independent MP.[86]
The party returned to power following the 2022 general election, where the Pakatan Harapan coalition won a plurality of seats. A coalition government between Pakatan Harapan, Barisan Naisonal, Gabungan Parti Sarawak, Gabungan Rakyat Sabah, and individual parties; colloquially known as the "unity government", was formed with Anwar as prime minister.
Ideology
A supporter of liberal democracy,[87] PKR's constitution has as one of their core principles,[88] the establishment of "a society that is just and a nation that is democratic, progressive and united". In practice, the party has primarily focused on promoting social justice,[89] economic justice,[90][91] eliminating political corruption[92] and human rights issues[93] within a non-ethnic framework.[94]
↑Gershman, John. "The (Final) Rise of Anwar Ibrahim". Journal of Democracy. Retrieved 20 November 2025. PKR originated from the Reformasi movement, with a focus on challenging collusion, corruption, and nepotism, and advocating institutional reform and judicial independence.
↑Khoo, Boo Teik (11 November 2021). "Recurring Themes in the Politics of Parti Keadilan Rakyat". ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. Retrieved 20 November 2025. The party's growth and evolution is closely tied to the Reformasi movement, emphasizing anti-corruption and systemic reform.
12"Recurring Themes in the Politics of Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PDF)"(PDF). ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. Retrieved 20 November 2025. PKR's policy orientation reflects centre-left social democracy, emphasizing social justice, equitable economic policies, and welfare-oriented governance.
↑Byoung-Hoon Lee; Ng Sek-Hong; Russell D. Lansbury, eds. (2019). Trade Unions and Labour Movements in the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge. ISBN9780429576089. ... and the Malaysian People's Party (PRM), a former socialist party. PKR is basically a social-liberal party committed to social justice, equality, equal rights, ...
123Hew Wai Weng (17 November 2022). "Islamists vs Islamists in GE15". Malay Mail. Retrieved 20 November 2025. ABIM-linked and IKRAM-linked actors within PKR share conservative views on numerous religious, moral, and gender issues.
12"ISEAS Perspective 2015_41"(PDF). ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. Retrieved 20 November 2025. Secular-leaning PKR factions may alienate more conservative Malays, indicating the presence of socially conservative pressures within the party.
123Wai Weng, Hew (30 April 2018). "Voting for Islamisms beyond the ballot box". New Mandala. Retrieved 20 November 2025. Some PKR leaders are influenced by political Islam and ABIM, promoting Islamic values and maqasid syariah within the party while maintaining pluralist policies.
↑"Party of Hardship (PDF)"(PDF). ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. Retrieved 20 November 2025. Anwar Ibrahim and ABIM-influenced PKR leaders combine Islam and democracy, reflecting a moderate Islamic reformist current within the party.
↑Nam-Kook Kim, ed. (2016). Trade Unions and Labour Movements in the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge. ISBN9781317093671. ... In the 2008 elections, Anwar's multiracialist and centrist PKR united the two, not just in opposition to the BN, but by pulling their political ideologies toward the political center. It is this feat that allows the Pakatan coalition to ...
↑Social Democratic Parties in Southeast Asia(PDF) (Report). Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Retrieved 20 November 2025. Comparative studies locate PKR within the centre-left spectrum due to its social-democratic policy priorities and reformist agenda.
↑"2,000 ahli PKR Pasir Puteh keluar parti"[2,000 PKR Pasir Puteh members left the party]. Harian Metro (in Malay). 29 February 2020. Archived from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
↑Noriyuki Segawa (29 May 2013). "Ethnic Politics in Malaysia: Prospects for National Integration". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 19 (2). Taylor & Francis Online: 210–232. doi:10.1080/13537113.2013.788918. S2CID144977212.
↑Maznah Mohamad (28 November 2008). "Malaysia — democracy and the end of ethnic politics?". Australian Journal of International Affairs. 62 (4). Taylor & Francis Online: 441–459. doi:10.1080/10357710802480691. S2CID154845768.
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