Punjabi Hindus

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Punjabi Hindus
Raj Kapoor 2001 stamp of India.jpg
A stamp of Raj Kapoor
Total population
c. 25.6 million approx. [1] [2]
Regions with significant populations
Punjab, India 10,678,140 (2011 Census) [3]
Delhi 4,029,110 – 5,875,780 (2011 est.) [4] [lower-alpha 1] [lower-alpha 2] [lower-alpha 3]
Haryana 2,028,120 – 8,112,470 (2011 est.) [lower-alpha 4] [lower-alpha 5] [lower-alpha 6] [lower-alpha 7]
Rajasthan 281,050 (2011 est.) [10] [11]
Himachal Pradesh 222,410 (2011 est.) [12] [13]
Punjab, Pakistan 211,640 (2017 Census) [14]
Chandigarh 94,150 (2011 est.) [10]
Jammu 59,930 (2011 est.) [15] [10]
Uttarakhand 27,240 (2011 est.) [16] [10]
Languages
Punjabi and its dialects
Religion
Hinduism (incl. Nanakpanthi)
Related ethnic groups

Punjabi Hindus are adherents of Hinduism who identify ethnically, linguistically, culturally, and genealogically as Punjabis and are natives of the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. Punjabi Hindus are the second-largest religious group of the Punjabi community, after the Punjabi Muslims. While Punjabi Hindus mostly inhabit the Indian state of Punjab, as well as Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, and Chandigarh today, many have ancestry across the greater Punjab region, which was partitioned between India and Pakistan in 1947.

Contents

History

Ancient

Rig Veda is the oldest Vedic Sanskrit Hindu text that originated in the northwestern Punjab region. 1500-1200 BCE Rigveda, manuscript page sample i, Mandala 1, Hymn 1 (Sukta 1), Adhyaya 1, lines 1.1.1 to 1.1.9, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg
Rig Veda  is the oldest Vedic Sanskrit Hindu text that originated in the northwestern Punjab region.

Hinduism is the oldest recorded religion practiced by the Punjabi people. [17] The historical Vedic religion of the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) constituted the religious ideas and practices in Punjab, and centred primarily in the worship of Indra, the Hindu god of heaven and lightning. [18] The Vedic tribes moved further eastwards in the northern Indus Valley and towards the Ganges-Yamuna doab during the late Vedic Period, and Brahminism developed out of the Vedic origins in the Kurukshetra area. The religion of the Vedic Period is one of the precursors of Hinduism, and the Vedic period ended when the Hindu synthesis developed out of the interaction between Brahminism, Sramanism, and local religions. [19] [20] [lower-alpha 8]

The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BCE, [21] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the Manusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BCE onward. [22]

British colonial era

Colour photograph of a sadhu and companion sitting under a large tree in Lahore, India in 1914, taken by Stephane Passet Sadhu and companion sit under a large tree in Lahore in 1914, a true-colour photograph taken by Albert Kahn.jpg
Colour photograph of a sadhu and companion sitting under a large tree in Lahore, India in 1914, taken by Stéphane Passet

Prominent Indian nationalists from Punjab, such as Lala Lajpat Rai, belonged to the Arya Samaj. The Arya Samaj, a Hindu reformist sect was active in propagating their message in Punjab. [23] In the early part of the 20th century, the Samaj and organisations inspired by it, such as Jat Pat Todak Mandal, were active in campaigning against caste discrimination. [24] Other activities in which the Samaj engaged included campaigning for the acceptance of widow remarriage and women's education. [25]

During the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Hindus and Punjabi Muslims was noted and documented by officials in census reports:

"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab, Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions of Tazias, in Muharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment of Sabils (shelters where water and sharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like the Chiraghan fair of Shalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus." [26] : 174 
"Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy of Varnashrama Dharma were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men. Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith... The Shamsis are believers in Shah Shamas Tabrez of Multan, and follow the Imam, for the time being, of the Ismailia sect of Shias... they belong mostly to the Sunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong." [26] : 130 

— Excerpts from the Census of India (Punjab Province), 1911 CE

1947 Partition

Approximately 3 million Punjabi Hindus migrated from West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (present-day Pakistan) to East Punjab and Delhi (present-day India) during the Partition. [27] [28] [29]

This split the former British province of Punjab between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's Punjab province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India's East Punjab state (later divided into the new states of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the Partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide. [30]

The newly formed governments had not anticipated, and were completely unequipped for, a two-way migration of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the new India-Pakistan border. Estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 2,000,000. The worst case of violence among all regions is concluded to have taken place in Punjab. [31] [32] [33] [34]

Punjabi Suba and trifurcation of Punjab

After the Partition, Sikh leaders and political parties demanded a "Punjabi Suba" (Punjabi Province) where Punjabi language written in the Gurumukhi script would be the language of the state in North India.

At the instigation of the Arya Samaj, many Punjabi Hindus in present-day Ambala, Una, and Sirsa stated Hindi as their mother tongue in the censuses of 1951 and 1961. Some areas of the erstwhile East Punjab state where Hindi, Haryanvi, and Western Pahari-speaking Hindus formed the majority, became part of the newly created states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh where Hindi was declared the state language. This was in contrast with the primarily Punjabi-speaking locals in some regions of the newly created states. [35] A direct result of the trifurcation of East Punjab into three states made Punjab a Sikh-majority state in India. Today, Punjabi Hindus make up approximately 38.5% population of present Punjab State of India. [36] [37]

Demographics

India

Devi Talab Mandir in Jalandar, Punjab, India. Devi talab jal.jpg
Devi Talab Mandir in Jalandar, Punjab, India.

In the Indian state of Punjab, Punjabi Hindus make up approximately 38.5% of the state's population; numbering 10.7 million and are a majority in the Doaba region. Punjabi Hindus form a majority in five districts of Punjab, namely, Pathankot, Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Fazilka and Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar districts. [38]

During the 1947 partition, many Hindus from West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province settled in Delhi. Determined from 1991 and 2015 estimates, Punjabi Hindus form approximately 24 to 35 percent of Delhi's population; [lower-alpha 2] [lower-alpha 1] based on 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 16.8 million, this amounts to between 4 and 5.9 million people. [4]

Punjabi Hindus form between approximately eight and 32 percent of Haryana's population and are very much influential in the state politics. [lower-alpha 7] Based on 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 25.4 million, this amounts to between 2 and 8.1 million people.

Pakistan

Katas Raj Temples in Chakwal District, Punjab, Pakistan. Katas Raj Temple Top Mountain View.jpg
Katas Raj Temples in Chakwal District, Punjab, Pakistan.

Following the large-scale exodus that took place during the 1947 partition, there remains a small Punjabi Hindu community in Pakistan today. According to the 2017 Census, there are about 200,000 Hindus in Punjab province, forming approximately 0.2% of the total population. [14] Much of the community resides in the primarily rural South Punjab districts of Rahim Yar Khan and Bahawalpur where they form 3.12% and 1.12% of the population respectively, [39] [40] while the rest are concentrated in urban centres such as Lahore. [41] [42] In 2006, the last functioning Hindu temple in Lahore, once the cultural capital of Punjabi Hindus, was destroyed to make way for a multi-story commercial building, and thus the millennia-old history of Hindus in Lahore came to an end. [43]

Diaspora

Large diaspora communities exist in many countries including in Canada, the Gulf Countries, Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom.

Culture and religion

Durgiana Temple in Amritsar, Punjab, India. Durgiana Temple, Amritsar.jpg
Durgiana Temple in Amritsar, Punjab, India.
Fresco of Radha Krishna painted in the early 19th century on the walls of the Maiyanatha Thakurdwara in Katra Dulo, Amritsar, Punjab Fresco of Radha and Krishna painted in the early 19th century on the walls of the Maiyanatha Thakurdwara in Katra Dulo, Amritsar, Punjab.jpg
Fresco of Radha Krishna painted in the early 19th century on the walls of the Maiyanatha Thakurdwara in Katra Dulo, Amritsar, Punjab
A Hindu illustrated manuscript written in Gurmukhi script with paintings inside A Hindu illustrated manuscript written in Gurmukhi script with paintings inside 04.webp
A Hindu illustrated manuscript written in Gurmukhi script with paintings inside

As in many other parts of India, Hinduism in Punjab has adapted over time and has become a synthesis of culture and history.

Mata Mansa Devi Mandir, Panchkula MATA MANSA DEVI-PANCHKULA, HARYANA outer view of temple on top.jpg
Mata Mansa Devi Mandir, Panchkula

As Hindus believe that dharma is universal and evolves with time, many Hindus also value other spiritual paths and religious traditions. They believe that any traditions that are equally able to nurture one's Atman should be accepted and taught. Hinduism itself encourages any being to reach their own self-realization in their own unique way either through Bhagavan or through other means of devotion and meditation. [45]

The Punjabi Hindus continue heterogeneous religious practices in spiritual kinship with Sikhism. This not only includes veneration of the Sikh gurus in private practice but also visits to Sikh gurdwaras in addition to Hindu temples. [46]

According to Anjali Gera Roy, The Hindu Punjabis of Western Punjab settled away from their ancestral homeland during 1947 partition, speak a hybrid language based on Punjabi and Hindi (or Hindi with Punjabi accent). [47] [48]

Udasis

Udasi is a religious sect of ascetic sadhus centered in Punjab Region. The Udasis were key interpreters of the Sikh philosophy and the custodians of important Sikh shrines until the Akali movement. They brought many converts into the Sikh fold during the 18th and the early 19th centuries. [49] However, their religious practices border on a syncretism of Sikhism and Hinduism. When the Singh Sabha, dominated by Tat Khalsa Sikhs, redefined the Sikh identity in the early 20th century, the Udasi mahants were expelled from the Sikh shrines. Since then, the Udasis have increasingly regarded themselves as Hindus rather than Sikhs. [50]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 “The most important section among settlers is the Punjabis who are estimated to constitute around 35 percent of the population." [5]
  2. 1 2 “Though Punjabis constitute a mere twenty-four per cent of so of the capital city's population, on average they hold fifty-three per cent of the available managerial positions." [6] : 54 
  3. ↑ Punjabi Hindus represent between 24 and 35 per cent of Delhi's population, determined from 1991 and 2015 estimates. [6] [5] Based on the 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 16,787,941, this amounts to between 4,029,106 and 5,875,779 persons. [4]
  4. ↑ “Punjabis constitute about eight per cent of the state’s population, they are a can’t-be-ignored political constituency." [7]
  5. ↑ “Political experts attribute the rise of the BJP in the region to sustained consolidation among certain communities, especially the Punjabis who account for 8% of the state’s estimated population of around 28 million." [8]
  6. ↑ “The mahasabha in a representation to Shaktisinh Gohil claimed that Punjabi community is 32 per cent of the state’s population, but was not getting the due representation in the organisation as well as in elections." [9]
  7. 1 2 Punjabi Hindus represent between eight and 32 per cent of Haryana's population, determined from 2014, 2019, and 2023 estimates. [7] [8] [9] Based on the 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 25,351,462, this amounts to between 2,028,117 and 8,112,467 persons.
  8. ↑ Michaels (2004, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
    Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). "Vedic Hinduism" (PDF). Harvard University. p. 3.: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
    See also Halbfass 1991, pp. 1–2

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Punjab</span> Geographical region in South Asia

Punjab, also known as the Land of the Five Rivers, is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern-Pakistan and northwestern-India. Punjab's major cities are Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Multan, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Sialkot, Chandigarh, Shimla, Jalandhar, Patiala, Gurugram, and Bahawalpur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Punjab, Pakistan</span> Province of Pakistan

Punjab is a province of Pakistan. Located in the central-eastern region of the country, Punjab is the second-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the largest by population. Lahore is the capital and the largest city of the province. Other major cities include Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala and Multan. According to 2023 Pakistani census population of Punjab province was 127,333,305.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikhs</span> Ethnoreligious group who adhere to Sikhism

Sikhs are an ethnoreligious group who adhere to Sikhism, a religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak. The term Sikh has its origin in the Sanskrit word śiṣya, meaning 'seeker', 'disciple' or 'student'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arya Samaj</span> Vedic reform organisation

Arya Samaj is a monotheistic Indian Hindu reform movement that promotes values and practices based on the belief in the infallible authority of the Vedas. The sannyasi (ascetic) Dayananda Saraswati founded the samaj in the 1870s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Partition of India</span> 1947 division of British India

The Partition of India in 1947 was the change of political borders and the division of other assets that accompanied the dissolution of the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent and the creation of two independent dominions in South Asia: India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Pakistan—which at the time comprised two regions lying on either side of India—is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh. The partition was outlined in the Indian Independence Act 1947. The change of political borders notably included the division of two provinces of British India, Bengal and Punjab. The majority Muslim districts in these provinces were awarded to Pakistan and the majority non-Muslim to India. The other assets that were divided included the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Royal Indian Air Force, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury. Provisions for self-governing independent Pakistan and India legally came into existence at midnight on 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively.

The Punjabis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group associated with the Punjab region, comprising areas of northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. They generally speak Standard Punjabi or various Punjabi dialects on both sides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arain</span> Pakistani Punjabi agricultural community

Arain are a large Punjabi Muslim agricultural community with a strong political identity and level of organisation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Punjab Province (British India)</span> Province of British India

The Punjab Province was a province of British India. Most of the Punjab region was annexed by the British East India Company on 29 March 1849; it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British control. In 1858, the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the rule of the British Crown. It had a land area of 358,355 square kilometers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hinduism in India</span>

Hinduism is the largest and most practised religion in India. About 80% of the country's population identified as Hindu in the last census. India contains 94% of the global Hindu population. The vast majority of Indian Hindus belong to Shaivite, Vaishnavite and Shakta denominations. India is one of the three countries in the world where Hinduism is the dominant religion.

Chuhra, also known as Bhanghi and Balmiki, is a Dalit caste in India and Pakistan. Populated regions include the Punjab region of India and Pakistan, as well as Uttar Pradesh in India, among other parts of the Indian subcontinent such as southern India. Their traditional occupation is sweeping, a "polluting" occupation that caused them to be considered untouchables in the caste system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Pakistan</span>

The official religion of Pakistan is Islam, as enshrined by Article 2 of the Constitution, and is practised by an overwhelming majority of 96.35% of the country's population. The remaining 3.65% practice Hinduism, Christianity, Ahmadiyya, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism and other religions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haqiqat Rai</span> Religious martyr

Haqiqat Rai Bakhmal Puri was an 18th-century martyr from Sialkot, who was executed in Lahore during the time of Zakariya Khan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanakpanthi</span> Religious community in Pakistan and India

Nanakpanthi, also known as Nanakshahi, is a Sikh sect which follows Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism.

Punjab is home to 2.3% of India's population; with a density of 551 persons per km2. According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census, Punjab has a population of 27,743,338, making it the 16th most populated state in India. Of which male and female are 14,639,465 and 13,103,873 respectively. 32% of Punjab's population consists of Dalits. In the state, the rate of population growth is 13.9% (2011), lower than national average. Out of total population, 37.5% people live in urban regions. The total figure of population living in urban areas is 10,399,146 of which 5,545,989 are males and while remaining 4,853,157 are females. The urban population in the last 10 years has increased by 37.5%. According to the 2011 Census of India, Punjab, India has a population of around 27.7 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Punjab, India</span> State in northwestern India

Punjab is a state in northwestern India. Forming part of the larger Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, the state is bordered by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh to the north and northeast, Haryana to the south and southeast, and Rajasthan to the southwest; by the Indian union territories of Chandigarh to the east and Jammu and Kashmir to the north. It shares an international border with Punjab, a province of Pakistan to the west. The state covers an area of 50,362 square kilometres, which is 1.53% of India's total geographical area, making it the 19th-largest Indian state by area out of 28 Indian states. With over 27 million inhabitants, Punjab is the 16th-largest Indian state by population, comprising 23 districts. Punjabi, written in the Gurmukhi script, is the most widely spoken and the official language of the state. The main ethnic group are the Punjabis, with Sikhs (57.7%) and Hindus (38.5%) forming the dominant religious groups. The state capital, Chandigarh, is a union territory and also the capital of the neighbouring state of Haryana. Three tributaries of the Indus River — the Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi — flow through Punjab.

Religion in the Punjab in ancient history was characterized by Hinduism and later conversions to Jainism, Buddhism, Islam, Sikhism and Christianity; it also includes folk practices common to all Punjabis regardless of the religion they adhere to. Such practices incorporate local mysticism, including ancestral worship and worship of local saints of all faiths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Singh Sabha Movement</span> 1870s Sikh movement in Punjab

The Singh Sabhā Movement, also known as the Singh Sabhā Lehar, was a Sikh movement that began in Punjab in the 1870s in reaction to the proselytising activities of Christians, Hindu reform movements and Muslims. The movement was founded in an era when the Sikh Empire had been dissolved and annexed by the British, the Khalsa had lost its prestige, and mainstream Sikhs were rapidly converting to other religions. The movement's aims were to "propagate the true Sikh religion and restore Sikhism to its pristine glory; to write and distribute historical and religious books of Sikhs; and to propagate Gurmukhi Punjabi through magazines and media." The movement sought to reform Sikhism and bring back into the Sikh fold the apostates who had converted to other religions; as well as to interest the influential British officials in furthering the Sikh community. At the time of its founding, the Singh Sabha policy was to avoid criticism of other religions and political matters.

Punjabi Muslims are Punjabis who are adherents of Islam. With a population of more than 112 million, they are the third-largest predominantly Islam-adhering Muslim ethnicity in the world, after Arabs and Bengalis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Punjabi Christians</span> Ethnic Punjabis who are adherents of Christianity

Punjabi Christians are adherents of Christianity who identify ethnically, linguistically, culturally, and genealogically as Punjabis. They are mainly found in the Pakistani province of Punjab, forming the largest religious minority. They are one of the four main ethnoreligious communities of the Punjab region with the others being Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus. Punjabi Christians are traditionally divided into various castes, and are largely descendants of Hindus who converted to Christianity during the British Raj in colonial India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hinduism in Punjab, Pakistan</span> Overview of the role and impact of Hinduism in the Pakistani province of Punjab

Hinduism is a minority religion in Punjab province of Pakistan followed by about 0.19% of its population. Punjab has the second largest number of Hindus in Pakistan after Sindh. Hinduism is followed mainly in the Southern Punjab districts of Rahim Yar Khan and Bahawalpur.

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  36. ↑ Lamba K. G. Dynamics of Punjabi Suba Movement Deep and Deep 1999. p. 90 ISBN   9788176291293 Accessed 3 February 2017.
  37. ↑ Grewal J. S. The Sikhs of the Punjab Cambridge University Press 1998. p. 187 ISBN   9780521637640 Accessed 3 February 2017.
  38. ↑ "Religion by districts - Punjab". census.gov.in. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  39. ↑ "District wise census" . Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  40. ↑ Dharmindar Balach (17 August 2017). "Pakistani Hindus celebrate Janmashtami with fervour". Daily Times. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  41. ↑ "Hindu community celebrates Diwali across Punjab". The Express Tribune. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  42. ↑ "Dussehra celebrated at Krishna Mandir". The Express Tribune. 23 October 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  43. ↑ "Only Hindu temple in Lahore demolished". The Times of India. 13 June 2006.
  44. ↑ "Shri Mata Mansa Devi Shrine Board". mansadevi.org.in. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  45. ↑ "Sikhism | History, Doctrines, Practice, & Literature". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
  46. ↑ Raj, Dhooleka Sarhadi (2003). Where Are You From? Middle-Class Migrants in the Modern World. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 80. ISBN   9780520233836.
  47. ↑ MINE, T. I., & ROY, A. G. (2004). NOT SPEAKING A LANGUAGE. Translation Today, 1, 26.
  48. ↑ Kumar, P. (1982). Communalisation of Hindus in Punjab. Secular Democracy, 11(9), 27-29.|url=https://idcindia.org/wp-content/themes/idc/pdf/3.communalism/news/1-Communalisation%20of%20Hindus%20in%20Punjab%20_%20Secular%20Democracy%20_%20October%201982%20_%20Vol%2015%20No.%20IX.pdf%7Cpage=8
  49. ↑ Pashaura Singh. Fenech, Louis E. (March 2014). The Oxford handbook of Sikh studies. OUP Oxford. ISBN   978-0-19-969930-8. OCLC   874522334.
  50. ↑ Oberoi, Harjot. (1997). The Construction of religious boundaries: culture, identity, and diversity in the Sikh tradition. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN   0-19-563780-1. OCLC   39001441.

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