Magnesium sulfate

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Magnesium sulfate
Mgaq6SO4.svg
Magnesium sulfate hexahydrate
Magnesium sulfate anhydrous.jpg
Anhydrous magnesium sulfate
Magnesium sulfate.JPG
Epsomite (Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate)
Names
IUPAC name
Magnesium sulfate
Other names
  • Epsom salt (Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate)
  • English salt
  • Bitter salts
  • Bath salt
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
DrugBank
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.453 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
EC Number
  • 231-298-2
KEGG
PubChem CID
RTECS number
  • OM4500000
UNII
  • InChI=1S/Mg.H2O4S/c;1-5(2,3)4/h;(H2,1,2,3,4)/q+2;/p-2 Yes check.svgY
    Key: CSNNHWWHGAXBCP-UHFFFAOYSA-L Yes check.svgY
  • InChI=1/Mg.8H2O4S/c;1-5(2,3)4/h;(H2,1,2,3,4)/q+2;/p-2
    Key: CSNNHWWHGAXBCP-NUQVWONBAQ
  • [Mg+2].[O-]S([O-])(=O)=O
Properties
MgSO4
Molar mass
  • 120.366 g/mol (anhydrous)
  • 138.38 g/mol (monohydrate)
  • 174.41 g/mol (trihydrate)
  • 210.44 g/mol (pentahydrate)
  • 228.46 g/mol (hexahydrate)
  • 246.47 g/mol (heptahydrate)
Appearancewhite crystalline solid
Odor odorless
Density
  • 2.66 g/cm3 (anhydrous)
  • 2.445 g/cm3 (monohydrate)
  • 1.68 g/cm3 (heptahydrate)
  • 1.512 g/cm3 (undecahydrate)
Melting point
  • anhydrous decomposes at 1,124 °C
  • monohydrate decomposes at 200 °C
  • heptahydrate decomposes at 150 °C
  • undecahydrate decomposes at 2 °C
  • anhydrous
  • 26.9 g/(100 mL) (0 °C)
  • 35.1 g/(100 mL) (20 °C)
  • 50.2 g/(100 mL) (100 °C)
  • heptahydrate
  • 113 g/(100 mL) (20 °C)
738 (502 g/L)
Solubility
−50·10−6 cm3/mol
1.523 (monohydrate)
1.433 (heptahydrate)
Structure
monoclinic (hydrate)
Pharmacology
A06AD04 ( WHO ) A12CC02 ( WHO ) B05XA05 ( WHO ) D11AX05 ( WHO ) V04CC02 ( WHO )
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704.svgHealth 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentineFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
1
0
0
Related compounds
Other cations
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
X mark.svgN  verify  (what is  Yes check.svgYX mark.svgN ?)

Magnesium sulfate or magnesium sulphate is a chemical compound, a salt with the formula MgSO4, consisting of magnesium cations Mg2+ (20.19% by mass) and sulfate anions SO2−4. It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water but not in ethanol.

Magnesium sulfate is usually encountered in the form of a hydrate MgSO4·nH2O, for various values of n between 1 and 11. The most common is the heptahydrate MgSO4·7H2O, [1] known as Epsom salt , which is a household chemical with many traditional uses, including bath salts. [2]

The main use of magnesium sulfate is in agriculture, to correct soils deficient in magnesium (an essential plant nutrient because of the role of magnesium in chlorophyll and photosynthesis). The monohydrate is favored for this use; by the mid 1970s, its production was 2.3 million tons per year. [3] The anhydrous form and several hydrates occur in nature as minerals, and the salt is a significant component of the water from some springs.

Hydrates

Magnesium sulfate can crystallize as several hydrates, including:

As of 2017, the existence of the decahydrate apparently has not been confirmed. [9]

All the hydrates lose water upon heating. Above 320 °C, only the anhydrous form is stable. It decomposes without melting at 1124 °C into magnesium oxide (MgO) and sulfur trioxide (SO3).

Heptahydrate

The heptahydrate takes its common name "Epsom salt" from a bitter saline spring in Epsom in Surrey, England, where the salt was produced from the springs that arise where the porous chalk of the North Downs meets the impervious London clay.

The heptahydrate readily loses one equivalent of water to form the hexahydrate.

It is a natural source of both magnesium and sulphur. Epsom salts are commonly used in bath salts, exfoliants, muscle relaxers and pain relievers. However, these are different from Epsom salts that are used for gardening, as they contain aromas and perfumes not suitable for plants. [10]

Monohydrate

Magnesium sulfate monohydrate, or kieserite, can be prepared by heating the heptahydrate to 120 °C. [11] Further heating to 250 °C gives anhydrous magnesium sulfate. [11] Kieserite exhibits monoclinic symmetry at pressures lower than 2.7 GPa after which it transforms to phase of triclinic symmetry. [6]

Undecahydrate

The undecahydrate MgSO4·11H2O, meridianiite, is stable at atmospheric pressure only below 2 °C. Above that temperature, it liquefies into a mix of solid heptahydrate and a saturated solution. It has a eutectic point with water at −3.9 °C and 17.3% (mass) of MgSO4. [7] Large crystals can be obtained from solutions of the proper concentration kept at 0 °C for a few days. [7]

At pressures of about 0.9 GPa and at 240 K, meridianiite decomposes into a mixture of ice VI and the enneahydrate MgSO4·9H2O. [9]

Enneahydrate

The enneahydrate MgSO4·9H2O was identified and characterized only recently, even though it seems easy to produce (by cooling a solution of MgSO4 and sodium sulfate Na2SO4 in suitable proportions).

The structure is monoclinic, with unit-cell parameters at 250 K: a = 0.675  nm, b = 1.195 nm, c = 1.465 nm, β = 95.1°, V = 1.177 nm3 with Z = 4. The most probable space group is P21/c. Magnesium selenate also forms an enneahydrate MgSeO4·9H2O, but with a different crystal structure. [9]

Natural occurrence

As Mg2+ and SO2−4 ions are respectively the second most abundant cation and anion present in seawater after Na+ and Cl−, magnesium sulfates are common minerals in geological environments. Their occurrence is mostly connected with supergene processes. Some of them are also important constituents of evaporitic potassium-magnesium (K-Mg) salts deposits.

Bright spots observed by the Dawn Spacecraft in Occator Crater on the dwarf planet Ceres are most consistent with reflected light from magnesium sulfate hexahydrate. [12]

Almost all known mineralogical forms of MgSO4 are hydrates. Epsomite is the natural analogue of "Epsom salt". Meridianiite, MgSO4·11H2O, has been observed on the surface of frozen lakes and is thought to also occur on Mars. Hexahydrite is the next lower hydrate. Three next lower hydrates – pentahydrite, starkeyite, and especially sanderite – are rare. Kieserite is a monohydrate and is common among evaporitic deposits. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate was reported from some burning coal dumps.

Preparation

Magnesium sulfate is usually obtained directly from dry lake beds and other natural sources. It can also be prepared by reacting magnesite (magnesium carbonate, MgCO3) or magnesia (oxide, MgO) with sulfuric acid (H2SO4):

H2SO4 + MgCO3 → MgSO4 + H2O + CO2

Another possible method is to treat seawater or magnesium-containing industrial wastes so as to precipitate magnesium hydroxide and react the precipitate with sulfuric acid.

Also, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (epsomite, MgSO4·7H2O) is manufactured by dissolution of magnesium sulfate monohydrate (kieserite, MgSO4·H2O) in water and subsequent crystallization of the heptahydrate.

Physical properties

Magnesium sulfate relaxation is the primary mechanism that causes the absorption of sound in seawater at frequencies above 10  kHz [13] (acoustic energy is converted to thermal energy). Lower frequencies are less absorbed by the salt, so that low frequency sound travels farther in the ocean. Boric acid and magnesium carbonate also contribute to absorption. [14]

Uses

Medical

Magnesium sulfate is used both externally (as Epsom salt) and internally.

The main external use is the formulation as bath salts, especially for foot baths to soothe sore feet. Such baths have been claimed to also soothe and hasten recovery from muscle pain, soreness, or injury. [15] Potential health effects of magnesium sulfate are reflected in medical studies on the impact of magnesium on resistant depression [16] and as an analgesic for migraine and chronic pain. [17] Magnesium sulfate has been studied in the treatment of asthma, [18] preeclampsia and eclampsia. [19]

Magnesium sulfate is the usual component of the concentrated salt solution used in isolation tanks to increase its specific gravity to approximately 1.25–1.26. This high density allows an individual to float effortlessly on the surface of water in the closed tank, eliminating stimulation of as many of the external senses as possible.

In the UK, a medication containing magnesium sulfate and phenol, called "drawing paste", is useful for small boils or localized infections [20] and removing splinters. [21]

Internally, magnesium sulfate may be administered by oral, respiratory, or intravenous routes. Internal uses include replacement therapy for magnesium deficiency, [22] treatment of acute and severe arrhythmias, [23] as a bronchodilator in the treatment of asthma, [24] preventing eclampsia [25] and cerebral palsy, [26] [27] a tocolytic agent, [28] and as an anticonvulsant. [28]

It also may be used as laxative. [29]

Agriculture

In agriculture, magnesium sulfate is used to increase magnesium or sulfur content in soil. It is most commonly applied to potted plants, or to magnesium-hungry crops such as potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, peppers, lemons, and roses. The advantage of magnesium sulfate over other magnesium soil amendments (such as dolomitic lime) is its high solubility, which also allows the option of foliar feeding. Solutions of magnesium sulfate are also nearly pH neutral, compared with the slightly alkaline salts of magnesium as found in limestone; therefore, the use of magnesium sulfate as a magnesium source for soil does not significantly change the soil pH. [28] Contrary to the popular belief that magnesium sulfate is able to control pests and slugs, helps seeds germination, produce more flowers, improve nutrient uptake, and is environmentally friendly, it does none of the purported claims except for correcting magnesium deficiency in soils. Magnesium sulfate can even pollute water if used in excessive amounts. [30]

Magnesium sulfate was historically used as a treatment for lead poisoning prior to the development of chelation therapy, as it was hoped that any lead ingested would be precipitated out by the magnesium sulfate and subsequently purged from the digestive system. [31] This application saw particularly widespread use among veterinarians during the early-to-mid 20th century; Epsom salt was already available on many farms for agricultural use, and it was often prescribed in the treatment of farm animals that inadvertently ingested lead. [32] [33]

Food preparation

Magnesium sulfate is used as:

Chemistry

Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is commonly used as a desiccant in organic synthesis owing to its affinity for water and compatibility with most organic compounds. During work-up, an organic phase is treated with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The hydrated solid is then removed by filtration, decantation, or by distillation (if the boiling point is low enough). Other inorganic sulfate salts such as sodium sulfate and calcium sulfate may be used in the same way.

Construction

Magnesium sulfate is used to prepare specific cements by the reaction between magnesium oxide and magnesium sulfate solution, which are of good binding ability and more resistance than Portland cement. This cement is mainly utilized in the production of lightweight insulation panels, although its poor water resistance limits its usage.

Magnesium (or sodium) sulfate is also used for testing aggregates for soundness in accordance with ASTM C88 standard, when there are no service records of the material exposed to actual weathering conditions. The test is accomplished by repeated immersion in saturated solutions followed by oven drying to dehydrate the salt precipitated in permeable pore spaces. The internal expansive force, derived from the rehydration of the salt upon re-immersion, simulates the expansion of water on freezing.

Magnesium sulfate is also used to test the resistance of concrete to external sulfate attack (ESA).

Aquaria

Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate is also used to maintain the magnesium concentration in marine aquaria which contain large amounts of stony corals, as it is slowly depleted in their calcification process. In a magnesium-deficient marine aquarium, calcium and alkalinity concentrations are very difficult to control because not enough magnesium is present to stabilize these ions in the saltwater and prevent their spontaneous precipitation into calcium carbonate. [37]

Double salts

Double salts containing magnesium sulfate exist. There are several known as sodium magnesium sulfates and potassium magnesium sulfates. A mixed copper-magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Mg,Cu)SO4·7H2O was found to occur in mine tailings and was given the mineral name alpersite. [38]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Sodium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula Na2CO3 and its various hydrates. All forms are white, odourless, water-soluble salts that yield alkaline solutions in water. Historically, it was extracted from the ashes of plants grown in sodium-rich soils, and because the ashes of these sodium-rich plants were noticeably different from ashes of wood, sodium carbonate became known as "soda ash". It is produced in large quantities from sodium chloride and limestone by the Solvay process, as well as by carbonating sodium hydroxide which is made using the Chlor-alkali process.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iron(II) sulfate</span> Chemical compound

Iron(II) sulfate (British English: iron(II) sulphate) or ferrous sulfate denotes a range of salts with the formula FeSO4·xH2O. These compounds exist most commonly as the heptahydrate (x = 7) but several values for x are known. The hydrated form is used medically to treat or prevent iron deficiency, and also for industrial applications. Known since ancient times as copperas and as green vitriol (vitriol is an archaic name for sulfate), the blue-green heptahydrate (hydrate with 7 molecules of water) is the most common form of this material. All the iron(II) sulfates dissolve in water to give the same aquo complex [Fe(H2O)6]2+, which has octahedral molecular geometry and is paramagnetic. The name copperas dates from times when the copper(II) sulfate was known as blue copperas, and perhaps in analogy, iron(II) and zinc sulfate were known respectively as green and white copperas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magnesium carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, is an inorganic salt that is a colourless or white solid. Several hydrated and basic forms of magnesium carbonate also exist as minerals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Copper(II) sulfate</span> Chemical compound

Copper(II) sulfate, also known as copper sulphate, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula CuSO4. It forms hydrates CuSO4·nH2O, where n can range from 1 to 7. The pentahydrate (n = 5), a bright blue crystal, is the most commonly encountered hydrate of copper(II) sulfate, while its anhydrous form is white. Older names for the pentahydrate include blue vitriol, bluestone, vitriol of copper, and Roman vitriol. It exothermically dissolves in water to give the aquo complex [Cu(H2O)6]2+, which has octahedral molecular geometry. The structure of the solid pentahydrate reveals a polymeric structure wherein copper is again octahedral but bound to four water ligands. The Cu(II)(H2O)4 centers are interconnected by sulfate anions to form chains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zinc sulfate</span> Chemical compound

Zinc sulfate describes a family of inorganic compounds with the formula ZnSO4(H2O)x. All are colorless solids. The most common form includes water of crystallization as the heptahydrate, with the formula ZnSO4·7H2O. As early as the 16th century it was prepared on the large scale, and was historically known as "white vitriol" (the name was used, for example, in 1620s by the collective writing under the pseudonym of Basil Valentine). Zinc sulfate and its hydrates are colourless solids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epsomite</span> Sulfate mineral

Epsomite, Epsom salt, or magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, is a hydrous magnesium sulfate mineral with formula MgSO4·7H2O.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kieserite</span>

Kieserite, or magnesium sulfate monohydrate, is a hydrous magnesium sulfate mineral with formula (MgSO4·H2O).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium sulfate</span> Chemical compound with formula Na2SO4

Sodium sulfate (also known as sodium sulphate or sulfate of soda) is the inorganic compound with formula Na2SO4 as well as several related hydrates. All forms are white solids that are highly soluble in water. With an annual production of 6 million tonnes, the decahydrate is a major commodity chemical product. It is mainly used as a filler in the manufacture of powdered home laundry detergents and in the Kraft process of paper pulping for making highly alkaline sulfides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Potassium sulfate</span> Chemical compound

Potassium sulfate (US) or potassium sulphate (UK), also called sulphate of potash (SOP), arcanite, or archaically potash of sulfur, is the inorganic compound with formula K2SO4, a white water-soluble solid. It is commonly used in fertilizers, providing both potassium and sulfur.

In chemistry, water(s) of crystallization or water(s) of hydration are water molecules that are present inside crystals. Water is often incorporated in the formation of crystals from aqueous solutions. In some contexts, water of crystallization is the total mass of water in a substance at a given temperature and is mostly present in a definite (stoichiometric) ratio. Classically, "water of crystallization" refers to water that is found in the crystalline framework of a metal complex or a salt, which is not directly bonded to the metal cation.

Indium(III) sulfate (In2(SO4)3) is a sulfate salt of the metal indium. It is a sesquisulfate, meaning that the sulfate group occurs 11/2 times as much as the metal. It may be formed by the reaction of indium, its oxide, or its carbonate with sulfuric acid. An excess of strong acid is required, otherwise insoluble basic salts are formed. As a solid indium sulfate can be anhydrous, or take the form of a pentahydrate with five water molecules or a nonahydrate with nine molecules of water. Indium sulfate is used in the production of indium or indium containing substances. Indium sulfate also can be found in basic salts, acidic salts or double salts including indium alum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nickel(II) sulfate</span> Chemical compound

Nickel(II) sulfate, or just nickel sulfate, usually refers to the inorganic compound with the formula NiSO4(H2O)6. This highly soluble blue green coloured salt is a common source of the Ni2+ ion for electroplating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manganese(II) sulfate</span> Chemical compound

Manganese(II) sulfate usually refers to the inorganic compound with the formula MnSO4·H2O. This pale pink deliquescent solid is a commercially significant manganese(II) salt. Approximately 260,000 tonnes of manganese(II) sulfate were produced worldwide in 2005. It is the precursor to manganese metal and many other chemical compounds. Manganese-deficient soil is remediated with this salt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Szomolnokite</span>

Szomolnokite (Fe2+SO4·H2O) is a monoclinic iron sulfate mineral forming a complete solid solution with magnesium end-member kieserite (MgSO4·H2O). In 1877 szomolnokite's name was derived by Joseph Krenner from its type locality of oxidized sulfide ore containing iron in Szomolnok, Slovakia (Hungary at the time).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cobalt(II) sulfate</span> Inorganic compound

Cobalt(II) sulfate is any of the inorganic compounds with the formula CoSO4(H2O)x. Usually cobalt sulfate refers to the hexa- or heptahydrates CoSO4.6H2O or CoSO4.7H2O, respectively. The heptahydrate is a red solid that is soluble in water and methanol. Since cobalt(II) has an odd number of electrons, its salts are paramagnetic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meridianiite</span>

Meridianiite is the mineral consisting of magnesium sulfate undecahydrate, MgSO
4·11H
2O. It is colorless transparent crystalline salt that precipitates from solutions saturated in Mg2+ and SO42− ions at temperatures less than 2 °C. The synthetic compound was formerly known as Fritzsche's salt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chromium(II) sulfate</span> Chemical compound

Chromium(II) sulfate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula CrSO4. It often comes as hydrates CrSO4·nH2O. Several hydrated salts are known. The pentahydrate CrSO4·5H2O is a blue solid that dissolves readily in water. Solutions of chromium(II) are easily oxidized by air to Cr(III) species. Solutions of Cr(II) are used as specialized reducing agents of value in organic synthesis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leonite</span> Hydrated double sulfate of magnesium and potassium

Leonite is a hydrated double sulfate of magnesium and potassium. It has the formula K2SO4·MgSO4·4H2O. The mineral was named after Leo Strippelmann, who was director of the salt works at Westeregeln in Germany. The mineral is part of the blodite group of hydrated double sulfate minerals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medical uses of magnesium sulfate</span>

Magnesium sulfate as a medication is used to treat and prevent low blood magnesium and seizures in women with eclampsia. It is also used in the treatment of torsades de pointes, severe asthma exacerbations, constipation, and barium poisoning. It is given by injection into a vein or muscle as well as by mouth. As epsom salts, it is also used for mineral baths.

Sodium magnesium sulfate is a double sulfate of sodium and magnesium. There are a number of different stoichiometries and degrees of hydration with different crystal structures, and many are minerals. Members include:

References

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  2. ↑ "Quick Cures/Quack Cures: Is Epsom Worth Its Salt?". The Wall Street Journal . 9 April 2012. Archived from the original on 12 April 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
  3. ↑ Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, Karl Heinz Büchel, Hans-Heinrich Moretto, Dietmar Werner, John Wiley & Sons, 2d edition, 2000, ISBN   978-3-527-61333-5
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  6. 1 2 Meusburger, Johannes (15 January 2020). "Polymorphism of Mg-sulfate monohydrate kieserite under pressure and its occurrence on giant icy jovian satellites". Icarus. 336: 113459. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.113459. S2CID   209977442.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 A. Dominic Fortes, Frank Browning, and Ian G. Wood (2012): "Cation substitution in synthetic meridianiite (MgSO4·11H2O) I: X-ray powder diffraction analysis of quenched polycrystalline aggregates". Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, volume 39, issue, pages 419–441. doi:10.1007/s00269-012-0497-9
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  24. ↑ Blitz M, Blitz S, Hughes R, Diner B, Beasley R, Knopp J, Rowe BH (2005). "Aerosolized magnesium sulfate for acute asthma: a systematic review". Chest. 128 (1): 337–344. doi:10.1378/chest.128.1.337. PMID   16002955..
  25. ↑ Duley, L; Gülmezoglu, AM; Henderson-Smart, DJ; Chou, D (10 November 2010). "Magnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010 (11): CD000025. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000025.pub2. PMC   7061250 . PMID   21069663.
  26. ↑ Edwards, Hannah B; Redaniel, Maria Theresa; Sillero-Rejon, Carlos; Margelyte, Ruta; Peters, Tim J; Tilling, Kate; Hollingworth, William; McLeod, Hugh; Craggs, Pippa; Hill, Elizabeth; Redwood, Sabi; Donovan, Jenny; Treloar, Emma; Wetz, Ellie; Swinscoe, Natasha (8 January 2023). "National PReCePT Programme: a before-and-after evaluation of the implementation of a national quality improvement programme to increase the uptake of magnesium sulfate in preterm deliveries". Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 108 (4): fetalneonatal–2022–324579. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2022-324579. hdl: 1983/5a362df9-c182-4bae-96c5-60c76b6219a1 . ISSN   1359-2998. PMC   10314002 . PMID   36617442.
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  29. ↑ Izzo, A. A.; Gaginella, T. S.; Capasso, F. (June 1996). "The osmotic and intrinsic mechanisms of the pharmacological laxative action of oral high doses of magnesium sulphate. Importance of the release of digestive polypeptides and nitric oxide". Magnesium Research. 9 (2): 133–138. ISSN   0953-1424. PMID   8878010.
  30. ↑ "Horticulture myths". University of Vermont Extension Department of Plant and Soil Science. Archived from the original on 7 August 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  31. ↑ Wood, H. C. (1877). A Treatise on Therapeutics, Comprising Materia Medica and Toxicology, with Especial Reference to the Application of the Physiological Action of Drugs to Clinical Medicine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. p. 34. The treatment of acute lead-poisoning consists in the evacuation of the stomach, if necessary, the exhibition of the sulphate of sodium or of magnesium, and the meeting of the indications as they arrive. The Epsom and Glauber's salts act as chemical antidotes, by precipitating the insoluble sulphate of lead, and also, if in excess, empty the bowel of the compound formed.
  32. ↑ Barker, C. A. V. (January 1945). "Experience with Lead Poisoning". Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science. 9 (1): 6–8. PMC   1660962 . PMID   17648099. Udall (1) suggests sodium citrate as of some value together with Epsom salts which will bring about a precipitation of the lead in the form of an insoluble compound. Nelson (3) reported a case that survived following the use of a 20% magnesium sulphate solution intravenously, subcutaneously and orally. McIntosh (5) has suggested that purgative doses of Epsom salts may be effective in combining with the lead and overcoming the toxicity.
  33. ↑ Herriot, James (1972). All Creatures Great and Small. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 157. ISBN   0-312-08498-6. The specific antidotes to metal poisoning had not been discovered and the only thing which sometimes did a bit of good was magnesium sulphate which caused the precipitation of insoluble lead sulphate. The homely term for magnesium sulphate is, of course, epsom salts.
  34. ↑ "Magnesium Sulphate". National Home Brew. Archived from the original on 1 August 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
  35. ↑ US 6042851,Matsuura, Masaru; Sasaki, Masaoki& Sasakib, Junet al.,"Process for producing packed tofu",published 2000-03-28
  36. ↑ "What's Really in Bottled Water?". 17 January 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  37. ↑ "Do-It-Yourself Magnesium Supplements for the Reef Aquarium". Reefkeeping. 2006. Archived from the original on 22 March 2008. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
  38. ↑ Peterson, Ronald C.; Hammarstrom, Jane M.; Seal, II, Robert R (February 2006). "Alpersite (Mg,Cu)SO4·7H2O, a new mineral of the melanterite group, and cuprian pentahydrite: Their occurrence within mine waste". American Mineralogist. 91 (2–3): 261–269. doi:10.2138/am.2006.1911. S2CID   56431885.
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