Archery

Last updated

Archery competition in June 1983 at Monchengladbach, West Germany ArcheryGermanyEarly1980s-2.jpg
Archery competition in June 1983 at Mönchengladbach, West Germany
A Rikbaktsa archer competes at Brazil's Indigenous Games Brazilarcher.jpg
A Rikbaktsa archer competes at Brazil's Indigenous Games
Tibetan archer, 1938 Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-18-07-16, Tibetexpedition, Volksfest, Bogenschutze.jpg
Tibetan archer, 1938
Master Heon Kim demonstrating Gungdo, traditional Korean archery (Kuk Kung), 2009 Master Heon Kim.jpg
Master Heon Kim demonstrating Gungdo, traditional Korean archery (Kuk Kung), 2009
Archers in East Timor Bogenschutzen in Ili-Mano 2.jpg
Archers in East Timor
Japanese archer Toshi-ya.JPG
Japanese archer
Archery in Bhutan Archery in Bhutan.jpg
Archery in Bhutan
Archer in Benin DEGAN Gabin ( archery).jpg
Archer in Benin

Archery is the sport, practice, or skill of using a bow to shoot arrows. [1] The word comes from the Latin arcus, meaning bow. [2] Historically, archery has been used for hunting and combat. In modern times, it is mainly a competitive sport and recreational activity. A person who practices archery is typically called an archer, bowman, or toxophilite. [3]

Contents

History

Origins and ancient archery

The oldest known evidence of the bow and arrow comes from South African sites such as Sibudu Cave, where the remains of bone and stone arrowheads have been found dating approximately 72,000 to 60,000 years ago. [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Based on indirect evidence, the bow also seems to have appeared or reappeared later in Eurasia, near the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic. The earliest definite remains of bow and arrow from Europe are possible fragments from Germany found at Mannheim-Vogelstang dated 17,500 to 18,000 years ago, and at Stellmoor dated 11,000 years ago. Azilian points found in Grotte du Bichon, Switzerland, alongside the remains of both a bear and a hunter, with flint fragments found in the bear's third vertebra, suggest the use of arrows at 13,500 years ago. [10] Other signs of its use in Europe come from the Stellmoor  [ de ] in the Ahrensburg valley  [ de ] north of Hamburg, Germany and dates from the late Paleolithic, about 10,000–9000 BC. The arrows were made of pine and consisted of a main shaft and a 15–20 cm (5.9–7.9 in) fore shaft with a flint point. There are no definite earlier bows; previous pointed shafts are known, but may have been launched by spear-throwers rather than bows. The oldest bows known so far comes from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark. At the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton, suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons about 10,000 years ago. [11] Bows eventually replaced the spear-thrower as the predominant means for launching shafted projectiles, on every continent except Australasia, though spear-throwers persisted alongside the bow in parts of the Americas, notably Mexico and among the Inuit.

Bows and arrows have been present in Egyptian and neighbouring Nubian culture since its respective predynastic and Pre-Kerma origins. In the Levant, artifacts that could be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture, (c. 10,800–8,300 BC) onwards. The Khiamian and PPN A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads.

Classical civilizations, notably the Assyrians, Greeks, Armenians, Persians, Parthians, Romans, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese fielded large numbers of archers in their armies. Akkadians were the first to use composite bows in war according to the victory stele of Naram-Sin of Akkad. [12] Egyptians referred to Nubia as "Ta-Seti," or "The Land of the Bow," since the Nubians were known to be expert archers, and by the 16th Century BC Egyptians were using the composite bow in warfare. [13] The Bronze Age Aegean Cultures were able to deploy a number of state-owned specialized bow makers for warfare and hunting purposes already from the 15th century BC. [14] The Welsh longbow proved its worth for the first time in Continental warfare at the Battle of Crécy. [15] In the Americas archery was widespread at European contact. [16]

Archery was highly developed in Asia. The Sanskrit term for archery, dhanurvidya, came to refer to martial arts in general. In East Asia, Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea was well known for its regiments of exceptionally skilled archers. [17] [18]

Medieval archery

The medieval shortbow was technically identical with the classical era bows, having a range of approximately 91 m (299 ft). It was the primary ranged weapon of the battlefield through the early medieval period. Around the tenth century the crossbow was introduced in Europe. Crossbows generally had a longer range, greater accuracy and more penetration than the shortbow, but suffered from a much slower rate of fire. Crossbows were used in the early Crusades, with models having a range of 274 m (899 ft) and being able to penetrate armour or kill a horse. [19]

During the late medieval period the English army famously relied on massed archers armed with the longbow. The French army relied more on the crossbow. [20] Like their predecessors archers were more likely to be peasants or yeomen than men-at-arms. The longbow had a range of up to 270 m (890 ft). However its lack of accuracy at long ranges made it a mass weapon rather than an individual one. Significant victories attributable to the longbow, such as the Battle of Crecy [21] and Battle of Agincourt resulted in the English longbow becoming part of military lore.

Mounted archery

Hunting for flying birds from the back of a galloping horse was considered the top category of archery. The favourite hobby of Prince Maximilian, engraved by Durer Maximilian 1470.png
Hunting for flying birds from the back of a galloping horse was considered the top category of archery. The favourite hobby of Prince Maximilian, engraved by Dürer

Tribesmen of Central Asia (after the domestication of the horse) and American Plains Indians (after gaining access to horses by Europeans) [22] became extremely adept at archery on horseback. Lightly armoured, but highly mobile archers were excellently suited to warfare in the Central Asian steppes, and they formed a large part of armies that repeatedly conquered large areas of Eurasia. Shorter bows are more suited to use on horseback, and the composite bow enabled mounted archers to use powerful weapons. [23] Seljuk Turks used mounted archers against the European First Crusade, especially at the Battle of Dorylaeum (1097). Their tactic was to shoot at the enemy infantry, and use their superior mobility to prevent the enemy from closing with them. Empires throughout the Eurasian landmass often strongly associated their respective "barbarian" counterparts with the usage of the bow and arrow, to the point where powerful states like the Han dynasty referred to their neighbours, the Xiong-nu, as "Those Who Draw the Bow". [24] For example, Xiong-nu mounted bowmen made them more than a match for the Han military, and their threat was at least partially responsible for Chinese expansion into the Ordos region, to create a stronger, more powerful buffer zone against them. [24] It is possible that "barbarian" peoples were responsible for introducing archery or certain types of bows to their "civilized" counterparts the Xiong-nu and the Han being one example. Similarly, short bows seem to have been introduced to Japan by northeast Asian groups. [25]

Decline of archery

The development of firearms rendered the bow and arrow obsolete in warfare, although efforts were sometimes made to preserve archery practice. In England and Wales, for example, the government tried to enforce practice with the longbow until the end of the 16th century. [26] This was because it was recognized that the bow had been instrumental to military success during the Hundred Years' War. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery in Armenia, China, Egypt, England and Wales, the Americas, India, Japan, Korea, Turkey and elsewhere, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the neglect of archery. Early firearms were inferior in rate-of-fire, and were very sensitive to wet weather. However, they had longer effective range [18] and were tactically superior in the common situation of soldiers shooting at each other from behind obstructions. They also required significantly less training to use properly, in particular penetrating steel armor without any need to develop special musculature. Armies equipped with guns could thus provide superior firepower, and highly trained archers became obsolete on the battlefield. However, the bow and arrow is still an effective weapon, and archers have seen military action in the 21st century. [27] [28] [29] Traditional archery remains in use for sport, and for hunting in many areas.

18th century revival as a sport

A print of the 1822 meeting of the "Royal British Bowmen" archery club. The meeting of the Royal British Bowmen in the grounds of Erthig, Denbighshire.jpeg
A print of the 1822 meeting of the "Royal British Bowmen" archery club.

Early recreational archery societies included the Finsbury Archers and the Ancient Society of Kilwinning Archers. The latter's annual Papingo event was first recorded in 1483. (In this event, archers shoot vertically from the base of an abbey tower to dislodge a wood pigeon placed approximately 30 m (98 ft) above.) [30] The Royal Company of Archers was formed in 1676 and is one of the oldest sporting bodies in the world. [31] Archery remained a small and scattered pastime, however, until the late 18th century when it experienced a fashionable revival among the aristocracy. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, with the patronage of George, the Prince of Wales.

Fashionable female archers, 1799 Archers by Adam Buck.jpg
Fashionable female archers, 1799

Archery societies were set up across the country, each with its own strict entry criteria and outlandish costumes. Recreational archery soon became extravagant social and ceremonial events for the nobility, complete with flags, music and 21-gun salutes for the competitors. The clubs were "the drawing rooms of the great country houses placed outside" and thus came to play an important role in the social networks of the local upper class. As well as its emphasis on display and status, the sport was notable for its popularity with females. Young women could not only compete in the contests but retain and show off their sexuality while doing so. Thus, archery came to act as a forum for introductions, flirtation and romance. [32] It was often consciously styled in the manner of a Medieval tournament with titles and laurel wreaths being presented as a reward to the victor. General meetings were held from 1789, in which local lodges convened together to standardise the rules and ceremonies. Archery was also co-opted as a distinctively British tradition, dating back to the lore of Robin Hood and it served as a patriotic form of entertainment at a time of political tension in Europe. The societies were also elitist, and the new middle class bourgeoisie were excluded from the clubs due to their lack of social status.

After the Napoleonic Wars, the sport became increasingly popular among all classes, and it was framed as a nostalgic reimagining of the preindustrial rural Britain. Particularly influential was Sir Walter Scott's 1819 novel, Ivanhoe that depicted the heroic character Lockseley winning an archery tournament. [33]

An archery in the coat of arms of Lieksa, based on the 1669 seal of the old town of Brahea. Lieksa.vaakuna.svg
An archery in the coat of arms of Lieksa, based on the 1669 seal of the old town of Brahea.

A modern sport

The 1840s saw the second attempts at turning the recreation into a modern sport. The first Grand National Archery Society meeting was held in York in 1844 and over the next decade the extravagant and festive practices of the past were gradually whittled away and the rules were standardized as the 'York Round' - a series of shoots at 55 m (180 ft), 73 m (240 ft), and 91 m (299 ft). Horace A. Ford helped to improve archery standards and pioneered new archery techniques. He won the Grand National 11 times in a row and published a highly influential guide to the sport in 1856.

Picture of Saxton Pope taken while grizzly hunting at Yellowstone Saxton Pope and grizzly.jpg
Picture of Saxton Pope taken while grizzly hunting at Yellowstone

Towards the end of the 19th century, the sport experienced declining participation as alternative sports such as croquet and tennis became more popular among the middle class. By 1889, just 50 archery clubs were left in Britain, but it was still included as a sport at the 1900 Paris Olympics. [36]

The National Archery Association of the United States was organized in 1879, in part by Maurice Thompson [37] (the author of the seminal text “The Witchery of Archery”) and his brother Will Thompson. Maurice was president in its inaugural year and Will was president in 1882, 1903, and 1904. [38] The 1910 President was Frank E Canfield. [39] Today it is known as USA Archery and is recognized by United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee. [40]

In the United States, primitive archery was revived in the early 20th century. The last of the Yahi Indian tribe, a native known as Ishi, came out of hiding in California in 1911. [41] [42] His doctor, Saxton Pope, learned many of Ishi's traditional archery skills, and popularized them. [43] [44] [ non-primary source needed ]The Pope and Young Club, founded in 1961 and named in honor of Pope and his friend, Arthur Young, became one of North America's leading bowhunting and conservation organizations. Founded as a nonprofit scientific organization, the Club was patterned after the prestigious Boone and Crockett Club and advocated responsible bowhunting by promoting quality, fair chase hunting, and sound conservation practices.[ citation needed ]

Five women taking part in an archery contest in 1931 Archery contest at CNE, 1931.tif
Five women taking part in an archery contest in 1931

From the 1920s, professional engineers took an interest in archery, previously the exclusive field of traditional craft experts. [45] They led the commercial development of new forms of bow including the modern recurve and compound bow. These modern forms are now dominant in modern Western archery; traditional bows are in a minority. Archery returned to the Olympics in 1972. In the 1980s, the skills of traditional archery were revived by American enthusiasts, and combined with the new scientific understanding. Much of this expertise is available in the Traditional Bowyer's Bibles (see Further reading). Modern game archery owes much of its success to Fred Bear, an American bow hunter and bow manufacturer. [46]

In 2021, five people were killed and three injured by an archer in Norway in the Kongsberg attack. [47]

Mythology

Vishwamitra archery training from Ramayana Vishwamitra archery training-1.jpg
Vishwamitra archery training from Ramayana
Herakles the Archer by Emile Antoine Bourdelle Herakles the Archer - Emile Antoine Bourdelle - ABDAG004586.jpg
Herakles the Archer by Émile Antoine Bourdelle

Deities and heroes in several mythologies are described as archers, including the Greek Artemis and Apollo, the Roman Diana and Cupid, the Germanic Agilaz, continuing in legends like those of Wilhelm Tell, Palnetoke, or Robin Hood. Armenian Hayk and Babylonian Marduk, Indian Karna (also known as Radheya/son of Radha), Abhimanyu, Eklavya, Arjuna, Bhishma, Drona, Rama, and Shiva were known for their shooting skills. The famous archery competition of hitting the eye of a rotating fish while watching its reflection in the water bowl was one of the many archery skills depicted in the Mahabharata . [48] Persian Arash was a famous archer. Earlier Greek representations of Heracles normally depict him as an archer. Archery, and the bow, play an important part in the epic poem the Odyssey, when Odysseus returns home in disguise and then bests the suitors in an archery competition after hinting at his identity by stringing and drawing his great bow that only he can draw, a similar motif is present in the Turkic Iranian heroic archeheroic poem Alpamysh. [49]

The Nymphai Hyperboreioi (Νύμφαι Ὑπερβόρειοι) were worshipped on the Greek island of Delos as attendants of Artemis, presiding over aspects of archery; Hekaerge (Ἑκαέργη), represented distancing, Loxo (Λοξώ), trajectory, and Oupis (Οὖπις), aim. [50]

Yi the archer and his apprentice Feng Meng appear in several early Chinese myths, [51] and the historical character of Zhou Tong features in many fictional forms. Jumong, the first Taewang of the Goguryeo kingdom of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is claimed by legend to have been a near-godlike archer. Archery features in the story of Oguz Khagan. Similarly, archery and the bow feature heavily into historical Korean identity. [52]

In West African Yoruba belief, Osoosi is one of several deities of the hunt who are identified with bow and arrow iconography and other insignia associated with archery.

Equipment

Types of bows

A Pacific yew selfbow drawn by the split finger method. Selfbows are made from a single piece of wood. Pacific Yew Selfbow.jpg
A Pacific yew selfbow drawn by the split finger method. Selfbows are made from a single piece of wood.

While there is great variety in the construction details of bows (both historical and modern), all bows consist of a string attached to elastic limbs that store mechanical energy imparted by the user drawing the string. Bows may be broadly split into two categories: those drawn by pulling the string directly and those that use a mechanism to pull the string.

Directly drawn bows may be further divided based upon differences in the method of limb construction, notable examples being self bows, laminated bows and composite bows. Bows can also be classified by the bow shape of the limbs when unstrung; in contrast to traditional European straight bows, a recurve bow and some types of longbow have tips that curve away from the archer when the bow is unstrung. The cross-section of the limb also varies; the classic longbow is a tall bow with narrow limbs that are D-shaped in cross section, and the flatbow has flat wide limbs that are approximately rectangular in cross-section. Cable-backed bows use cords as the back of the bow; the draw weight of the bow can be adjusted by changing the tension of the cable. They were widespread among Inuit who lacked easy access to good bow wood. One variety of cable-backed bow is the Penobscot bow or Wabenaki bow, invented by Frank Loring (Chief Big Thunder) about 1900. [53] It consists of a small bow attached by cables on the back of a larger main bow.

In different cultures, the arrows are released from either the left or right side of the bow, and this affects the hand grip and position of the bow. In Arab archery, Turkish archery, and Japanese archery. The arrows are released from the right hand side of the bow, and this affects construction of the bow. In western archery, the arrow is usually released from the left hand side of the bow for a right-handed archer.

Modern (takedown) recurve bow Recurve bow.jpg
Modern (takedown) recurve bow

Compound bows are designed to reduce the force required to hold the string at full draw, hence allowing the archer more time to aim with less muscular stress. Most compound designs use cams or elliptical wheels on the ends of the limbs to achieve this. A typical let-off is anywhere from 65% to 80%. For example, a 27 kg (60 lb) bow with 80% let-off only requires 53 N (12 lbf) to hold at full draw. Up to 99% let-off is possible. [54] The compound bow was invented by Holless Wilbur Allen in the 1960s (a US patent was filed in 1966 and granted in 1969) and it has become the most widely used type of bow for all forms of archery in North America.

Mechanically drawn bows typically have a stock or other mounting, such as the crossbow. Crossbows typically have shorter draw lengths compared to compound bows. Because of this, heavier draw weights are required to achieve the same energy transfer to the arrow. These mechanically drawn bows also have devices to hold the tension when the bow is fully drawn. They are not limited by the strength of a single archer and larger varieties have been used as siege engines.

Types of arrows and fletchings

The most common form of arrow consists of a shaft, with an arrowhead at the front end, and fletchings and a nock at the other end. Arrows across time and history have normally been carried in a container known as a quiver, which can take many different forms. Shafts of arrows are typically composed of solid wood, bamboo, fiberglass, aluminium alloy, carbon fiber, or composite materials. Wooden arrows are prone to warping. Fiberglass arrows are brittle, but can be produced to uniform specifications easily. Aluminium shafts were a very popular high-performance choice in the latter half of the 20th century, due to their straightness, lighter weight, and subsequently higher speed and flatter trajectories. Carbon fiber arrows became popular in the 1990s because they are very light, flying even faster and flatter than aluminium arrows. Today, the most popular arrows at tournaments and Olympic events are made of composite materials.

The arrowhead is the primary functional component of the arrow. Some arrows may simply use a sharpened tip of the solid shaft, but separate arrowheads are far more common, usually made from metal, stone, or other hard materials. The most commonly used forms are target points, field points, and broadheads, although there are also other types, such as bodkin, judo, and blunt heads.

Shield cut straight fletching - here the hen feathers are barred red Spliced feather 0002.jpg
Shield cut straight fletching – here the hen feathers are barred red

Fletching is traditionally made from bird feathers, but solid plastic vanes and thin sheet-like spin vanes are used. They are attached near the nock (rear) end of the arrow with thin double sided tape, glue, or, traditionally, sinew. The most common configuration in all cultures is three fletches, though as many as six have been used. Two makes the arrow unstable in flight. When the arrow is three-fletched, the fletches are equally spaced around the shaft, with one placed such that it is perpendicular to the bow when nocked on the string, though variations are seen with modern equipment, especially when using the modern spin vanes. This fletch is called the "index fletch" or "cock feather" (also known as "the odd vane out" or "the nocking vane"), and the others are sometimes called the "hen feathers". Commonly, the cock feather is of a different color. However, if archers are using fletching made of feather or similar material, they may use same color vanes, as different dyes can give varying stiffness to vanes, resulting in less precision. When an arrow is four-fletched, two opposing fletches are often cock feathers, and occasionally the fletches are not evenly spaced.

The fletching may be either parabolic cut (short feathers in a smooth parabolic curve) or shield cut (generally shaped like half of a narrow shield), and is often attached at an angle, known as helical fletching, to introduce a stabilizing spin to the arrow while in flight. Whether helical or straight fletched, when natural fletching (bird feathers) is used it is critical that all feathers come from the same side of the bird. Oversized fletchings can be used to accentuate drag and thus limit the range of the arrow significantly; these arrows are called flu-flus . Misplacement of fletchings can change the arrow's flight path dramatically.

Bowstring

Dacron and other modern materials offer high strength for their weight and are used on most modern bows. Linen and other traditional materials are still used on traditional bows. Several modern methods of making a bowstring exist, such as the 'endless loop' and 'Flemish twist'. Almost any fiber can be made into a bowstring. The author of Arab Archery suggests the hide of a young, emaciated camel. [55] Njál's saga describes the refusal of a wife, Hallgerður, to cut her hair to make an emergency bowstring for her husband, Gunnar Hámundarson, who is then killed.

Protective equipment

A right-hand finger tab to protect the hand while the string is drawn Finger-tab hg.jpg
A right-hand finger tab to protect the hand while the string is drawn

Most modern archers wear a bracer (also known as an arm-guard) to protect the inside of the bow arm from being hit by the string and prevent clothing from catching the bowstring. The bracer does not brace the arm; the word comes from the armoury term "brassard", meaning an armoured sleeve or badge. The Navajo people have developed highly ornamented bracers as non-functional items of adornment. [56] Some archers (nearly all female archers) wear protection on their chests, called chestguards or plastrons. The myth of the Amazons was that they had one breast removed to solve this problem. [57] Roger Ascham mentions one archer, presumably with an unusual shooting style, who wore a leather guard for his face. [58]

The drawing digits are normally protected by a leather tab, glove, or thumb ring. A simple tab of leather is commonly used, as is a skeleton glove. Medieval Europeans probably used a complete leather glove. [59]

Eurasiatic archers who used the thumb or Mongolian draw protected their thumbs, usually with leather according to the author of Arab Archery, [60] but also with special rings of various hard materials. Many surviving Turkish and Chinese examples are works of considerable art. Some are so highly ornamented that the users could not have used them to loose an arrow. Possibly these were items of personal adornment, and hence value, remaining extant whilst leather had virtually no intrinsic value and would also deteriorate with time. In traditional Japanese archery a special glove is used that has a ridge to assist in drawing the string. [61]

Release aids

Release aid Release-aid.jpg
Release aid

A release aid is a mechanical device designed to give a crisp and precise loose of arrows from a compound bow. In the most commonly used, the string is released by a finger-operated trigger mechanism, held in the archer's hand or attached to their wrist. In another type, known as a back-tension release, the string is automatically released when drawn to a pre-determined tension.

Stabilizers

Stabilizers are mounted at various points on the bow. Common with competitive archery equipment are special brackets that allow multiple stabilizers to be mounted at various angles to fine tune the bow's balance.

Stabilizers aid in aiming by improving the balance of the bow. Sights, quivers, rests, and design of the riser (the central, non-bending part of the bow) make one side of the bow heavier. One purpose of stabilizers are to offset these forces. A reflex riser design will cause the top limb to lean towards the shooter. In this case a heavier front stabilizer is desired to offset this action. A deflex riser design has the opposite effect and a lighter front stabilizer may be used.

Stabilizers can reduce noise and vibration. These energies are absorbed by viscoelastic polymers, gels, powders, and other materials used to build stabilizers.

Stabilizers improve the forgiveness and accuracy by increasing the moment of inertia of the bow to resist movement during the shooting process. Lightweight carbon stabilizers with weighted ends are desirable because they improve the moment of inertia while minimizing the weight added.

Shooting technique and form

Historical reenactment of medieval archery Mediaeval archery reenactment.jpg
Historical reenactment of medieval archery
Chief Master Sgt. Kevin Peterson demonstrates safe archery techniques while aiming an arrow at a target on the 28th Force Support Squadron trap and skeet range at Ellsworth Air Force Base, S.D., 11 October 2012. Thrill of the hunt.jpg
Chief Master Sgt. Kevin Peterson demonstrates safe archery techniques while aiming an arrow at a target on the 28th Force Support Squadron trap and skeet range at Ellsworth Air Force Base, S.D., 11 October 2012.

The standard convention on teaching archery is to hold the bow depending upon eye dominance. [62] (One exception is in modern kyūdō where all archers are trained to hold the bow in the left hand.) [63] Therefore, if one is right-eye dominant, they would hold the bow in the left hand and draw the string with the right hand. However, not everyone agrees with this line of thought. A smoother, and more fluid release of the string will produce the most consistently repeatable shots, and therefore may provide greater accuracy of the arrow flight. Some believe that the hand with the greatest dexterity should therefore be the hand that draws and releases the string. Either eye can be used for aiming, and the less dominant eye can be trained over time to become more effective for use. To assist with this, an eye patch can be temporarily worn over the dominant eye.

The hand that holds the bow is referred to as the bow hand and its arm the bow arm. The opposite hand is called the drawing hand or string hand. Terms such as bow shoulder or string elbow follow the same convention.

If shooting according to eye dominance, right-eye-dominant archers shooting conventionally hold the bow with their left hand. If shooting according to hand dexterity, the archer draws the string with the hand that possesses the greatest dexterity, regardless of eye dominance.

Modern form

To shoot an arrow, an archer first assumes the correct stance. The body should be at or nearly perpendicular to the target and the shooting line, with the feet placed shoulder-width apart. As an archer progresses from beginner to a more advanced level other stances such as the "open stance" or the "closed stance" may be used, although many choose to stick with a "neutral stance". Each archer has a particular preference, but mostly this term indicates that the leg furthest from the shooting line is a half to a whole foot-length from the other foot, on the ground.

To load, the bow is pointed toward the ground, tipped slightly clockwise of vertical (for a right handed shooter) and the shaft of the arrow is placed on the arrow rest or shelf. The back of the arrow is attached to the bowstring with the nock (a small locking groove located at the proximal end of the arrow). This step is called "nocking the arrow". Typical arrows with three vanes should be oriented such that a single vane, the "cock feather", is pointing away from the bow, to improve the clearance of the arrow as it passes the arrow rest.

A compound bow is fitted with a special type of arrow rest, known as a launcher, and the arrow is usually loaded with the cock feather/vane pointed either up, or down, depending upon the type of launcher being used.

The bowstring and arrow are held with three fingers, or with a mechanical arrow release. Most commonly, for finger shooters, the index finger is placed above the arrow and the next two fingers below, although several other techniques have their adherents around the world, involving three fingers below the arrow, or an arrow pinching technique. Instinctive shooting is a technique eschewing sights and is often preferred by traditional archers (shooters of longbows and recurves). In either the split finger or three finger under case, the string is usually placed in the first or second joint, or else on the pads of the fingers. When using a mechanical release aid, the release is hooked onto the D-loop. [64]

Another type of string hold, used on traditional bows, is the type favoured by the Mongol warriors, known as the "thumb release", style. This involves using the thumb to draw the string, with the fingers curling around the thumb to add some support. To release the string, the fingers are opened out and the thumb relaxes to allow the string to slide off the thumb. When using this type of release, the arrow should rest on the same side of the bow as the drawing hand i.e. Left hand draw = arrow on left side of bow.

The archer then raises the bow and draws the string, with varying alignments for vertical versus slightly canted bow positions. This is often one fluid motion for shooters of recurves and longbows, which tend to vary from archer to archer. Compound shooters often experience a slight jerk during the drawback, at around the last 4 cm (1.6 in), where the draw weight is at its maximum—before relaxing into a comfortable stable full draw position. The archer draws the string hand towards the face, where it should rest lightly at a fixed anchor point. This point is consistent from shot to shot, and is usually at the corner of the mouth, on the chin, to the cheek, or to the ear, depending on preferred shooting style. The archer holds the bow arm outwards, toward the target. The elbow of this arm should be rotated so that the inner elbow is perpendicular to the ground, though archers with hyper extendable elbows tend to angle the inner elbow toward the ground, as exemplified by the Korean archer Jang Yong-Ho. This keeps the forearm out of the way of the bowstring.

In modern form, the archer stands erect, forming a "T". The archer's lower trapezius muscles are used to pull the arrow to the anchor point. Some modern recurve bows are equipped with a mechanical device, called a clicker, which produces a clicking sound when the archer reaches the correct draw length. , traditional English Longbow shooters step "into the bow", exerting force with both the bow arm and the string hand arm simultaneously, especially when using bows having draw weights from 45 kg (99 lb) to over 80 kg (180 lb). Heavily stacked traditional bows (recurves, long bows, and the like) are released immediately upon reaching full draw at maximum weight, whereas compound bows reach their maximum weight around the last 4 cm (1.6 in), dropping holding weight significantly at full draw. Compound bows are often held at full draw for a short time to achieve maximum accuracy.

The arrow is typically released by relaxing the fingers of the drawing hand (see bow draw), or triggering the mechanical release aid. Usually the release aims to keep the drawing arm rigid, the bow hand relaxed, and the arrow is moved back using the back muscles, as opposed to using just arm motions. An archer should also pay attention to the recoil or follow through of his or her body, as it may indicate problems with form (technique) that affect accuracy.

Aiming methods

From Hokusai Manga, 1817 Archers (Kyujutsu) Page 7 by Katsushika Hokusai 1817.png
From Hokusai Manga , 1817

There are two main forms of aiming in archery: using a mechanical or fixed sight, or barebow.

Mechanical sights can be affixed to the bow to aid in aiming. They can be as simple as a pin, or may use optics with magnification. Modern compound bows usually also have a peep sight (rear sight) built into the string, which aids in a consistent anchor point, but this is not allowed for other bow types under World Archery. Modern compound [65] bows automatically limit the draw length to give a consistent arrow velocity, while traditional bows allow great variation in draw length. Some bows use mechanical methods to make the draw length consistent. Barebow archers often use a sight picture, which includes the target, the bow, the hand, the arrow shaft and the arrow tip, as seen at the same time by the archer. With a fixed "anchor point" (where the string is brought to, or close to, the face), and a fully extended bow arm, successive shots taken with the sight picture in the same position fall on the same point. This lets the archer adjust aim with successive shots to achieve accuracy.

Modern archery equipment usually includes sights. Instinctive aiming is used by many archers who use traditional bows. The two most common forms of a non-mechanical release are split-finger and three-under. Split-finger aiming requires the archer to place the index finger above the nocked arrow, while the middle and ring fingers are both placed below. Three-under aiming places the index, middle, and ring fingers under the nocked arrow. This technique allows the archer to better look down the arrow since the back of the arrow is closer to the dominant eye, and is commonly called "gun barreling" (referring to common aiming techniques used with firearms).

When using short bows or shooting from horseback, it is difficult to use the sight picture. The archer may look at the target, but without including the weapon in the field of accurate view. Aiming then involves hand-eye coordination—which includes proprioception and motor-muscle memory, similar to that used when throwing a ball. With sufficient practice, such archers can normally achieve good practical accuracy for hunting or for war. [66] Aiming without a sight picture may allow more rapid shooting, not however increasing accuracy.

Instinctive shooting

Instinctive shooting is a style of shooting that includes the barebow aiming method that relies heavily upon the subconscious mind, proprioception, and motor/muscle memory to make aiming adjustments; the term used to refer to a general category of archers who did not use a mechanical or fixed sight. [67] In other words, it is shooting "by feel." [68]

Gap shooting

Gap shooting is an aiming method used by instinctive shooters. [69] It involves consciously focusing on the tip of the arrow while maintaining awareness of the target. The archer must adjust the arrow's trajectory by gauging the distance between the arrow tip and the target, ensuring accurate shots. [69]

Physics

Mongol archers during the time of the Mongol conquests used a smaller bow suitable for horse archery. BnF. MS. Supplement Persan 1113. 1430-1434 AD. Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din 1305.JPG
Mongol archers during the time of the Mongol conquests used a smaller bow suitable for horse archery. BnF. MS. Supplément Persan 1113. 1430–1434 AD.

When a projectile is thrown by hand, the speed of the projectile is determined by the kinetic energy imparted by the thrower's muscles performing work. However, the energy must be imparted over a limited distance (determined by arm length) and therefore (because the projectile is accelerating) over a limited time, so the limiting factor is not work but rather power, which determines how much energy can be added in the limited time available. Power generated by muscles, however, is limited by force–velocity relationship, and even at the optimal contraction speed for power production, total work by the muscle is less than half of what it would be if the muscle contracted over the same distance at slow speeds, resulting in less than 1/4 the projectile launch velocity possible without the limitations of the force–velocity relationship.

When a bow is used, the muscles are able to perform work much more slowly, resulting in greater force and greater work done. This work is stored in the bow as elastic potential energy, and when the bowstring is released, this stored energy is imparted to the arrow much more quickly than can be delivered by the muscles, resulting in much higher velocity and, hence, greater distance. This same process is employed by frogs, which use elastic tendons to increase jumping distance. In archery, some energy dissipates through elastic hysteresis, reducing the overall amount released when the bow is shot. Of the remaining energy, some is dampened both by the limbs of the bow and the bowstring. Depending on the arrow's elasticity, some of the energy is also absorbed by compressing the arrow, primarily because the release of the bowstring is rarely in line with the arrow shaft, causing it to flex out to one side. This is because the bowstring accelerates faster than the archer's fingers can open, and consequently some sideways motion is imparted to the string, and hence arrow nock, as the power and speed of the bow pulls the string off the opening fingers.

Even with a release aid mechanism some of this effect is usually experienced, since the string always accelerates faster than the retaining part of the mechanism. This makes the arrow oscillate in flight—its center flexing to one side and then the other repeatedly, gradually reducing as the arrow's flight proceeds. This is clearly visible in high-speed photography of arrows at discharge. A direct effect of these energy transfers can clearly be seen when dry firing. Dry firing refers to releasing the bowstring without a nocked arrow. Because there is no arrow to receive the stored potential energy, almost all the energy stays in the bow. Some have suggested that dry firing may cause physical damage to the bow, such as cracks and fractures—and because most bows are not specifically made to handle the high amounts of energy dry firing produces, should never be done. [70]

Snake Indians - testing bows, circa 1837 by Alfred Jacob Miller, the Walters Art Museum Alfred Jacob Miller - Snake Indians - Testing Bows - Walters 37194060.jpg
Snake Indians - testing bows, circa 1837 by Alfred Jacob Miller, the Walters Art Museum

Modern arrows are made to a specified 'spine', or stiffness rating, to maintain matched flexing and hence accuracy of aim. This flexing can be a desirable feature, since, when the spine of the shaft is matched to the acceleration of the bow(string), the arrow bends or flexes around the bow and any arrow-rest, and consequently the arrow, and fletchings, have an un-impeded flight. This feature is known as the archer's paradox. It maintains accuracy, for if part of the arrow struck a glancing blow on discharge, some inconsistency would be present, and the excellent accuracy of modern equipment would not be achieved.

The accurate flight of an arrow depends on its fletchings. The arrow's manufacturer (a "fletcher") can arrange fletching to cause the arrow to rotate along its axis. This improves accuracy by evening pressure buildups that would otherwise cause the arrow to "plane" on the air in a random direction after shooting. Even with a carefully made arrow, the slightest imperfection or air movement causes some unbalanced turbulence in air flow. Consequently, rotation creates an equalization of such turbulence, which, overall, maintains the intended direction of flight i.e. accuracy. This rotation is not to be confused with the rapid gyroscopic rotation of a rifle bullet. Fletching that is not arranged to induce rotation still improves accuracy by causing a restoring drag any time the arrow tilts from its intended direction of travel.

The innovative aspect of the invention of the bow and arrow was the amount of power delivered to an extremely small area by the arrow. The huge ratio of length vs. cross sectional area, coupled with velocity, made the arrow more powerful than any other hand held weapon until firearms were invented. Arrows can spread or concentrate force, depending on the application. Practice arrows, for instance, have a blunt tip that spreads the force over a wider area to reduce the risk of injury or limit penetration. Arrows designed to pierce armor in the Middle Ages used a very narrow and sharp tip ("bodkinhead") to concentrate the force. Arrows used for hunting used a narrow tip ("broadhead") that widens further, to facilitate both penetration and a large wound.

Hunting

Hadza hunter-gatherer in Tanzania Mshale.jpg
Hadza hunter-gatherer in Tanzania
A modern compound hunting bow Bow compound.JPG
A modern compound hunting bow

Using archery to take game animals is known as "bow hunting". Bow hunting differs markedly from hunting with firearms, as distance between hunter and prey must be much shorter to ensure a humane kill. The skills and practices of bow hunting therefore emphasize very close approach to the prey, whether by still hunting, stalking, or waiting in a blind or tree stand. In many countries, including much of the United States, bow hunting for large and small game is legal. Bow hunters generally enjoy longer seasons than are allowed with other forms of hunting such as black powder, shotgun, or rifle. Usually, compound bows are used for large game hunting due to the relatively short time it takes to master them as opposed to the longbow or recurve bow. These compound bows may feature fiber optic sights, stabilizers, and other accessories designed to increase accuracy at longer distances. Using a bow and arrow to take fish is known as "bow fishing".

Modern competitive archery

Competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or distances. This is the most popular form of competitive archery worldwide and is called target archery. A form particularly popular in Europe and America is field archery, shot at targets generally set at various distances in a wooded setting. Competitive archery in the United States is governed by USA Archery and National Field Archery Association (NFAA), which also certifies instructors. [71]

Para-archery is an adaptation of archery for athletes with a disability, governed by the World Archery Federation (WA), and is one of the sports in the Summer Paralympic Games. [72] There are also several other lesser-known and historical forms of archery, as well as archery novelty games and flight archery, where the aim is to shoot the greatest distance.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English longbow</span> Type of ranged weapon

The English longbow was a powerful medieval type of bow, about 6 ft (1.8 m) long. While it is debated whether it originated in England or in Wales from the Welsh bow, by the 14th century the longbow was being used by both the English and the Welsh as a weapon of war and for hunting. English longbows were effective against the French during the Hundred Years' War, particularly in the battles of Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415). They were less successful later on, as longbowmen had their lines broken at the Battle of Verneuil (1424), although the English won a decisive victory there; they were completely routed at the Battle of Patay (1429) when they were charged by the French mounted men-at-arms before they had prepared the terrain and finished defensive arrangements. The Battle of Pontvallain (1370) had also previously shown longbowmen were not particularly effective when not given the time to set up defensive positions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arrow</span> Shafted projectile that is shot with a bow

An arrow is a fin-stabilized projectile launched by a bow. A typical arrow usually consists of a long, stiff, straight shaft with a weighty arrowhead attached to the front end, multiple fin-like stabilizers called fletchings mounted near the rear, and a slot at the rear end called a nock for engaging the bowstring. A container or bag carrying additional arrows for convenient reloading is called a quiver.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Compound bow</span> Type of bow for archery

In modern archery, a compound bow is a bow that uses a levering system, usually of cables and pulleys, to bend the limbs. The compound bow was first developed in 1966 by Holless Wilbur Allen in North Kansas City, Missouri, and a US patent was granted in 1969. Compound bows are widely used in target practice and hunting.

<i>Kyūdō</i> Japanese archery based martial art

Kyūdō is the Japanese martial art of archery. Kyūdō is based on kyūjutsu, which originated with the samurai class of feudal Japan. In 1919, the name of kyūjutsu was officially changed to kyūdō, and following the example of other martial arts that have been systematizing for educational purposes, kyūdō also reorganized and integrated various forms of shooting that had been used up until then. High level experts in kyūdō may be referred to as kyūdōka (弓道家)(Member of the Kyūdō family or house) and some practitioners may refer to themselves as yumihiki (弓引き), or 'bow puller'. Kyūdō is practised by thousands of people worldwide. The bow they use is called a yumi (弓), and the most common one has an asymmetrical shape of more than 2.0 metres, and is characterized by the archer holding the part of the bow below the center to shoot the arrow.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bow and arrow</span> Pre-gunpowder ranged weapon system

The bow and arrow is a ranged weapon system consisting of an elastic launching device (bow) and long-shafted projectiles (arrows). Humans used bows and arrows for hunting and aggression long before recorded history, and the practice was common to many prehistoric cultures. They were important weapons of war from ancient history until the early modern period, where they were rendered increasingly obsolete by the development of the more powerful and accurate firearms. Today, bows and arrows are mostly used for hunting and sports.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bow shape</span> Important aspect of archery

In archery, the shape of the bow is usually taken to be the view from the side. It is the product of the complex relationship of material stresses, designed by a bowyer. This shape, viewing the limbs, is designed to take into account the construction materials, the performance required, and the intended use of the bow.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fletching</span> Aerodynamic stabilization of arrows, etc.

Fletching is the fin-shaped aerodynamic stabilization device attached on arrows, bolts, darts, or javelins, and are typically made from light semi-flexible materials such as feathers or bark. Each piece of such fin is a fletch, also known as a flight or feather. A fletcher is a person who attaches fletchings to the shaft of arrows.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finger tab</span>

In archery, a finger tab or archer tab is a small leather or synthetic patch that protects an archer's fingers from the bowstring. It is strapped or otherwise attached to an archer's hand. In summertime, tabs are far more comfortable than gloves and can more conveniently use thicker material. They are also less expensive and easier to fit, and are the normal finger-protection used with recurve bows.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mongol bow</span> Type of bow and arrow developed in Mongolia

The Mongol bow is a type of recurved composite bow historically used in Mongolia, and by the horse archers of the Mongol Empire. "Mongol bow" can refer to two types of bow. From the 17th century onward, most of the traditional bows in Mongolia were replaced with the similar Manchu bow which is primarily distinguished by larger siyahs and the presence of prominent string bridges.

A longbow is a type of tall bow that makes a fairly long draw possible. A longbow is not significantly recurved. Its limbs are relatively narrow and are circular or D-shaped in cross section. Flatbows can be just as long, but in cross-section, a flatbow has limbs that are approximately rectangular.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkish archery</span> Tradition of archery which became highly developed in the Ottoman Empire

Turkish archery is a tradition of archery which became highly developed in the Ottoman Empire, although its origins date back to the Eurasian Steppe in the second millennium BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archer's paradox</span> Phenomenon in archery

The archer's paradox is the phenomenon of an arrow traveling in the direction it is pointed at full draw, when it seems that the arrow would have to pass through the starting position it was in before being drawn, where it was pointed to the side of the target.

A bow draw in archery is the method or technique of pulling back the bowstring to store energy for the bow to shoot an arrow. The most common method in modern target archery is the Mediterranean draw, which has long been the usual method in European archery. Other methods include the pinch draw and the Mongolian or "thumb" draw. In traditional archery practice outside Western Europe the variations of the thumb draw are by far the most dominant draw types, with the Mediterranean draw restricted to the Olympic style of target archery.

This is a list of archery terms, including both the equipment and the practice. A brief description for each word or phrase is also included.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Recurve bow</span> Type of bow shape in archery

In archery, a recurve bow is one of the main shapes a bow can take, with limbs that curve away from the archer when unstrung. A recurve bow stores more energy and delivers energy more efficiently than the equivalent straight-limbed bow, giving a greater amount of energy and speed to the arrow. A recurve will permit a shorter bow than the simple straight limb bow for given arrow energy, and this form was often preferred by archers in environments where long weapons could be cumbersome, such as in brush and forest terrain, or while on horseback.

Ya is the Japanese word for arrow, and commonly refers to the arrows used in kyūdō. Ya also refers to the arrows used by samurai during the feudal era of Japan. Unlike Western arrows, the ya is close to a metre long or longer. Traditional ya are made from natural materials, usually bamboo, while modern ones may use aluminium or carbon fiber.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese archery</span>

For millennia, Chinese archery has played a pivotal role in Chinese society. In particular, archery featured prominently in ancient Chinese culture and philosophy: archery was one of the Six Noble Arts of the Zhou dynasty ; archery skill was a virtue for Chinese emperors; Confucius himself was an archery teacher; and Lie Zi was an avid archer. Because the cultures associated with Chinese society spanned a wide geography and time range, the techniques and equipment associated with Chinese archery are diverse. The improvement of firearms and other circumstances of 20th century China led to the demise of archery as a military and ritual practice, and for much of the 20th century only one traditional bow and arrow workshop remained. However, at the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a revival in interest among craftsmen looking to construct bows and arrows, as well as a practice technique in the traditional Chinese style.

Modern competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy and precision from a set distance or distances. This is the most popular form of competitive archery worldwide and is called target archery. A form particularly popular in Europe, North America, and South America is field archery, shot at targets generally set at various distances in a wooded setting. There are also several other lesser-known and historical forms, as well as archery novelty games.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Release aid</span>

In archery, a release aid, mechanical release, or release is a device that helps to fire arrows more precisely, by using a trigger to release the bowstring, rather than the archer's fingers. It is used to make the release of the bowstring quicker and reducing the amount of torque put onto the bowstring from the archer's fingers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Takedown bow</span> Bow assembled out of a riser and two limbs

A takedown bow is a bow assembled out of a riser and two limbs to make a working bow when strung.

References

  1. Paterson Encyclopaedia of Archery p. 17
  2. Charlton T. Lewis; Charles Short (1879). "Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, arcus". Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary. Oxford. Clarendon Press. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  3. The noun "toxophilite", meaning "a lover or devotee of archery, an archer" derives from Toxophilus by Roger Ascham —"imaginary proper name invented by Ascham, and hence title of his book (1545), intended to mean 'lover of the bow'." "toxophilite, n." Oxford English Dictionary. Second edition, 1989; online version November 2010. <http://www.oed.com:80/Entry/204131>; accessed 10 March 2011. Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary, 1913.
  4. Lombard M (2020). "The tip cross-sectional areas of poisoned bone arrowheads from southern Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 33: 102477. Bibcode:2020JArSR..33j2477L. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102477. S2CID   224889105.
  5. Backwell L, d'Errico F, Wadley L.(2008). Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35:1566–1580. doi : 10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006
  6. Wadley, Lyn (2008). "The Howieson's Poort industry of Sibudu Cave". South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series. 10.
  7. Lombard M, Phillips L (2010). "Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64,000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa". Antiquity. 84 (325): 635–648. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00100134. S2CID   162438490.
  8. Lombard M (2011). "Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60 ka: further use-trace evidence from Sibudu, Kwa-Zulu-Natal, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 38 (8): 1918–1930. Bibcode:2011JArSc..38.1918L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.04.001.
  9. Backwell L, Bradfield J, Carlson KJ, Jashashvili T, Wadley L, d'Errico F.(2018). The antiquity of bow-and-arrow technology: evidence from Middle Stone Age layers at Sibudu Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science, 92:289–303. doi : 10.15184/aqy.2018.11
  10. « La grotte du Bichon, un site préhistorique des montagnes neuchâteloises  », Archéologie neuchâteloise 42, 2009.
  11. Lahr, M. Mirazón; Rivera, F.; Power, R.K.; Mounier, A.; Copsey, B.; Crivellaro, F.; Edung, J.E.; Fernandez, J.M. Maillo; Kiarie, C. (2016). "Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 529 (7586): 394–398. Bibcode:2016Natur.529..394L. doi:10.1038/nature16477. PMID   26791728. S2CID   4462435.
  12. Zutterman, C. (2003). "The bow in the Ancient Near East. A re-evaluation of archery from the late 2nd Millennium to the end of the Achaemenid empire". Iranica Antiqua. XXXVIII.
  13. Mc Leod, W.E. (January 1962). "Egyptian Composite Bows in New York". American Journal of Archaeology. 66 (1).
  14. Bakas, Spyros (2016). "Composite Bows in Minoan And Mycenaean Warfare". Syndesmoi. University of Catania. 4.
  15. "Bow Evolution". Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
  16. Zimmerman, Larry J. 1985 Peoples of Prehistoric South Dakota. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.
  17. Book of the Later Han "句驪一名貊耳有別種依小水為居因名曰小水貊出好弓所謂貊弓是也"
  18. 1 2 Duvernay, Thomas A.; Duvernay, Nicholas Y. (2007), Korean Traditional Archery, Handong Global University
  19. "The Bow In Medieval Warfare".
  20. "People of the Hundred Years' War". Royal Armouries Collections. 24 May 2018. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
  21. Rhoten, Ronald (9 January 2006). Trebuchet Energy Efficiency – Experimental Results. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2006-775. ISBN   978-1624100390.
  22. Fehrenbach, Theodore Reed (1974) The Comanches: The Destruction of a People. Knopf, New York, ISBN   0394488563; republished in 2003 under the title The Comanches: The History of a People. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN   1400030498.
  23. Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, The Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the World, Princeton University Press, ISBN   978-0691058870
  24. 1 2 Di Cosmo, Nicola (2001), Ancient China & Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History, Cambridge University Press, ISBN   978-0521770644
  25. Hurst III, G. Cameron (1998), Armed Martial Arts of Japan: Swordsmanship and Archery, Yale University Press, ISBN   0300049676
  26. Steven Gunn, Archery Practice in Early Tudor England, Past and Present, (2010) Vol. 209 (1): 53–81. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtq029
  27. Bows and arrows: deadly weapons of rural Kenya's war. Njoro, Kenya (AFP) 2 February 2008 http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Bows_and_arrows_deadly_weapons_of_rural_Kenyas_war_999.html accessed 21 July 2012
  28. Peace and Poison Arrows in Kenya. By Alexis Okeowo/Nairobi Friday, 29 February 2008. accessed 21at July 2012
  29. The National Disaster in Sad Pictures! http://www.ogiek.org/election-war/election-war-4.htm Archived 4 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine accessed 21 July 2012
  30. "About Us - Club History". Ancient Society of Kilwinning Archers. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
  31. Norton, William. "Royal Company of Archers". Yeomen of the Queen's Body Guard. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
  32. Johnes, Martin (2004). "Archery, Romance and Elite Culture in England and Wales, c. 1780–1840". History. Swansea.academia.edu. 89 (294): 193–208. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.2004.00297.x . Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  33. "The Royal Company of Archers". Archived from the original on 25 November 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
  34. Suomen kunnallisvaakunat (in Finnish). Suomen Kunnallisliitto. 1982. p. 123. ISBN   9517730853.
  35. Branea–Brahma - Projekt Runeberg (in Finnish)
  36. "Archery results – Pari 1900". olympic.org. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
  37. "Inductee – J. Maurice Thompson - Archery Hall of Fame and Museum". www.archeryhalloffame.com. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
  38. "Inductee – Will H. Thompson- Archery Hall of Fame and Museum". www.archeryhalloffame.com. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
  39. 1910 Spalding Official Archery Guide, Spalding Athletic Library & Library of Congress. Retrieved Dec 11, 2020
  40. Geneva Archery. Archived 8 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved Dec 11, 2020
  41. Allely, Steve; et al. (2008), The Traditional Bowyer's Bible, Volume 4, The Lyons Press, ISBN   978-0964574168
  42. Kroeber, Theodora (2004), Ishi in Two Worlds: a biography of the last wild Indian in North America, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN   978-0520240377
  43. Pope, Saxton (1925), Hunting with the Bow and Arrow, New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons
  44. Pope, Saxton (1926), Adventurous Bowmen: field notes on African archery, New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons
  45. Hickman, C. N.; Nagler, Forrest; Klopsteg, Paul E. (1947), Archery: The Technical Side. A compilation of scientific and technical articles on theory, construction, use and performance of bows and arrows, reprinted from journals of science and of archery, National Field Archery Association
  46. Bertalan, Dan. Traditional Bowyers Encyclopedia : The Bowhunting and Bowmaking World of the Nation's Top Crafters of Longbows and Recurves, 2007. p. 73.
  47. Frater, James; Smith-Spark, Laura (14 October 2021). "Suspect in Norway attack named as police say they're treating it as terrorism". CNN. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
  48. Digital illustration of skilled archer Arjuna aiming arrow at fish hung from revolving wheel above by Doring Kindersley, Fine Art America
  49. Zhimunsky, Victor (1966). "The Epic of 'Alpamysh' and the Return of Odysseus". Proceedings of the British Academy. 52: 267–286.
  50. "Nymphai Hyperboreioi at Theoi Greek Mythology". Theoi.com. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  51. Selby, Stephen (2000), Chinese Archery, Hong Kong University Press, ISBN   978-9622095014
  52. Ok, Gwang, Seokgyu Choi, and Hee Surk Jeong (2010). "'The Disturbance of War': The Ancient Origin and Development of Korean Archery". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 27 (3): 523–536. doi:10.1080/09523360903556824. S2CID   161376479.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. The Penobscot War Bow. Gordon M Day. Contributions to Canadian Ethnology 1975. Canadian Ethnology Service Paper no. 31. ISSN   0316-1854. Ottawa 1975.
  54. "99% Let Off Bows". Concept Archery. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  55. Nabih Amin Faris; Robert Potter Elmer (1945). Arab Archery: An Arabic manuscript of about AD 1500, "A book on the excellence of the bow & arrow" and the description thereof (PDF). Princeton University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2009.
  56. "Ketoh". Millicent Rogers Museum of Northern New Mexico. Archived from the original on 8 September 2008. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  57. "Amazon" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  58. Ascham, Roger (1545), Toxophilus – the School of Shooting, Read Books, ISBN   978-1846643699
  59. Strickland, M.; Hardy, R. (2005), The Great Warbow, Sutton Publishing, ISBN   978-0750931670
  60. Faris, Nabih Amin (2007), Arab Archery, Kessinger, ISBN   978-1432628833
  61. Elmer, R. P. Target Archery (1952), pp. 345–349
  62. "What is eye dominance? Why does it matter for my first bow?". Discover Archery. Easton Foundations. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
  63. Deprospero, Dan and Jackie. "One Point Lessons: A collection of simple lessons and explanations of Kyudo technique". Meishin Kyudojo. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
  64. St. Charles, Glenn (March 1996). Billets to Bows. Saint Charles Enterprises. ISBN   978-0965139403.
  65. Sung, LokMan; Kesha, Kilak; Avedschmidt, Sarah; Root, Kelly; Hlavaty, Leigh (12 June 2017). "The Modern Compound Bow". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 63 (1): 130–139. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.13503. hdl: 2027.42/141095 . ISSN   0022-1198. PMID   28605023. S2CID   46806116.
  66. Lehman, Herman (1927), Nine years among the Indians, 1870–1879 , University of New Mexico Press, ISBN   0-8263-1417-1, I amused myself by making blunt arrows... Plugging hats became one of my favorite pastimes. The boys would put their hats off about a hundred yards and bet me the drinks that I could not hit them. I would get the drinks every time...
  67. Bear, Fred (1980), The Archer's Bible, Garden City, NJ.: Doubleday, pp. 36–43
  68. Freel, Tyler (9 April 2019). "Breaking Trad: Archery Lessons from Tom Clum Sr". Outdoor Life. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  69. 1 2 Sorrells, Brian J. (2004). Beginner's Guide to Traditional Archery. Stackpole Books. ISBN   978-0-8117-3133-1.
  70. "The Physics of Archery AstraZeneca Science Teaching Trust". Docstoc.com. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  71. "About Us". Archived from the original on 5 January 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
  72. "Para Archery". World Archery. World Archery Foundation. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 24 January 2017.

Further reading