1788–89 United States presidential election

For related races, see 1788–89 United States elections.

1788–89 United States presidential election

December 15, 1788 – January 7, 1789 (1788-12-15 – 1789-01-07) 1792  →
69 members of the Electoral College 35 electoral votes needed to win
Turnout	11.6% [1]
Nominee George Washington Party Independent Home state Virginia Electoral vote 69 States carried 10 Popular vote 28,009 [a] [b] Percentage 100.0%
Presidential election results map. Green denotes states won by Washington. Black denotes states that did not appoint any electors. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes cast by each state. [note 1]
President before election Office established Elected President George Washington Independent

Presidential elections were first held in the United States from December 15, 1788 to January 7, 1789, under the new Constitution ratified in 1788. George Washington was unanimously elected for the first of his two terms as president and John Adams became the first vice president. This was the only U.S. presidential election that spanned two calendar years without a contingent election and the first national presidential election in American history.

Under the Articles of Confederation, which were ratified in 1781, the United States had no head of state. The executive function of government remained with the legislative similar to countries that use a parliamentary system. Federal power, strictly limited, was reserved to the Congress of the Confederation whose "President of the United States in Congress Assembled" was also chair of the Committee of the States which aimed to fulfill a function similar to that of the modern Cabinet.

The Constitution created the offices of President and Vice President, fully separating these offices from Congress. The Constitution established an Electoral College, based on each state's congressional representation, in which each elector would cast two votes for two candidates, a procedure modified in 1804 by the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment. States had varying methods for choosing presidential electors. ^[2] In five states, the state legislature chose electors. The other six chose electors through some form involving a popular vote, though in only two states did the choice depend directly on a statewide vote.

The enormously popular Washington was distinguished as the former Commander of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. After he agreed to come out of retirement, he was elected with ease unanimously; Washington did not select a running mate as that concept was not yet developed.

No formal political parties existed, though an informally organized consistent difference of opinion had already manifested between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Thus, the contest for the vice-presidency was open. Thomas Jefferson predicted that a popular Northern leader such as Governor John Hancock of Massachusetts or John Adams, a former minister to Great Britain who had represented Massachusetts in Congress, would be elected vice president. Anti-Federalist leaders such as Patrick Henry, who did not run, and George Clinton, who had opposed ratification of the Constitution, also represented potential choices.

All 69 electors present cast one vote for Washington, making his election unanimous. Adams won 34 electoral votes and the vice presidency. The remaining 35 electoral votes were split among 10 candidates, including John Jay, who finished third with nine electoral votes. Three states were ineligible to participate in the election: New York's legislature did not choose electors on time, and North Carolina and Rhode Island had not ratified the constitution yet. Washington was inaugurated in New York City on April 30, 1789, 57 days after the First Congress convened.

Candidates

Though no organized political parties yet existed, political opinion loosely divided between those who had more stridently and enthusiastically endorsed ratification of the Constitution, called Federalists or Cosmopolitans, and Anti-Federalists or Localists who had only more reluctantly, skeptically, or conditionally supported, or who had outright opposed ratification. Both factions supported Washington for president. Limited, primitive political campaigning occurred in states and localities where swaying public opinion might matter. For example, in Maryland, a state with a statewide popular vote, unofficial parties campaigned locally, advertising.

Federalist candidates

• 
  Former Minister to the Netherlands
  John Adams
  from Massachusetts
• 
  Secretary of Foreign Affairs
  John Jay
  from New York
• 
  Former Governor
  John Rutledge
  of South Carolina
• 
  Governor
  John Hancock
  of Massachusetts
• 
  Governor
  Samuel Huntington
  of Connecticut
• 
  Lieutenant Governor
  Benjamin Lincoln
  of Massachusetts

Anti-Federalist candidates

• 
  Governor
  George Clinton
  of New York

General election

No nomination process existed at the time of planning, and thus, the framers of the Constitution presumed that Washington would be elected unopposed. For example, Alexander Hamilton spoke for national opinion when in a letter to Washington attempting to persuade him to leave retirement on his farm in Mount Vernon to serve as the first president, he wrote that "...the point of light in which you stand at home and abroad will make an infinite difference in the respectability in which the government will begin its operations in the alternative of your being or not being the head of state."

Another uncertainty was the choice for the vice presidency, which contained no definite job description beyond being the president's designated successor and presiding over the Senate. The Constitution stipulated that the position would be awarded to the runner-up in the presidential election. Because Washington was from Virginia, then the largest state, many assumed that electors would choose a vice president from a northern state. In an August 1788 letter, U.S. Minister to France Thomas Jefferson wrote that he considered John Adams and John Hancock, both from Massachusetts, to be the top contenders. Jefferson suggested John Jay, John Rutledge, and Virginian James Madison as other possible candidates. ^[3] Adams received 34 electoral votes, one short of a majority – because the Constitution did not require an outright majority in the Electoral College prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to elect a runner-up as vice president, Adams was elected to that post.

Congress announced the procedure for the election on September 13, 1788, stipulating that all electors must be chosen on the first Wednesday in January (January 7, 1789), and that the electors must assemble to cast their votes for president and vice president on the first Wednesday in February (February 4). ^[4] However, the states differed in their interpretations of this procedure and of the relevant portions of the new Constitution. New Hampshire and Massachusetts held a popular vote for their presidential electors alongside the elections for their congressional representatives, on December 15 and December 18, respectively. In these two states, the legislatures ultimately chose the electors based on the voting results on the appointed day, January 7. In Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, the electors were chosen directly by the popular vote on January 7. In Connecticut, Georgia, and South Carolina, the electors were appointed by the legislature alone on January 7, while in New Jersey the governor and council selected them on that day. The legislature in New York was unable to agree on a method for choosing the electors before January 7, and so the state could not appoint any electors. ^[5]

Voter turnout comprised a low single-digit percentage of the adult population. Though all states allowed some rudimentary form of popular vote, only six ratifying states allowed any form of popular vote specifically for presidential electors. In most states only white men, and in many only those who owned property, could vote. Free black men could vote in four Northern states, and women could vote in New Jersey until 1804. In some states, there was a nominal religious test for voting. For example, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, the Congregational Church was established, supported by taxes. Voting was hampered by poor communications and infrastructure and the labor demands imposed by farming. Two months passed after the election before the votes were counted and Washington was notified that he had been elected president. Washington spent eight days traveling from Virginia to New York for the inauguration. ^[6] Congress took twenty-eight days to assemble. ^[7]

As the electors were selected, politics intruded, and the process was not free of rumors and intrigue. For example, Hamilton aimed to ensure that Adams did not inadvertently tie Washington in the electoral vote. ^[8] Also, Federalists spread rumors that Anti-Federalists plotted to elect Richard Henry Lee or Patrick Henry president, with George Clinton as vice president. However, Clinton received only three electoral votes. ^[9]

Results

Popular vote

	Popular vote(a), (b), (c)
	Count	Percentage
Federalist electors	24,471	87.4%
Anti-Federalist electors	3,538	12.6%
Total	28,009	100.0%

Source:United States Presidential Elections, 1788-1860: The Official Results by Michael J. Dubin ^[10]

^(a)Only six of the 11 states eligible to cast electoral votes chose electors by any form of popular vote.
^(b)Less than 1.8% of the population voted: the 1790 census would count a total population of 3.0 million with a free population of 2.4 million and 600,000 slaves in those states casting electoral votes.
^(c)Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.

Electoral vote

Presidential candidate	Party	Home state	Popular vote(a), (b), (c)		Electoral vote(d), (e), (f)
			Count	Percentage
George Washington	Independent	Virginia	28,009	100.0%	69
John Adams	Federalist	Massachusetts	—	—	34
John Jay	Federalist	New York	—	—	9
Robert H. Harrison	Federalist	Maryland	—	—	6
John Rutledge	Federalist	South Carolina	—	—	6
John Hancock	Federalist	Massachusetts	—	—	4
George Clinton	Anti-Federalist	New York	—	—	3
Samuel Huntington	Federalist	Connecticut	—	—	2
John Milton	Federalist	Georgia	—	—	2
James Armstrong (g)	Federalist	Georgia (g)	—	—	1
Benjamin Lincoln	Federalist	Massachusetts	—	—	1
Edward Telfair	Federalist [11]	Georgia	—	—	1
Total			28,009	100.0%	138
Needed to win					35

Source: "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996". National Archives and Records Administration . Retrieved July 30, 2005.Source (popular vote):A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 ^[12]

^(a)Only 6 of the 10 states casting electoral votes chose electors by any form of the popular vote.
^(b)Less than 1.8% of the population voted: the 1790 census would count a total population of 3.0 million with a free population of 2.4 million and 600,000 slaves in those states casting electoral votes.
^(c)Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.
^(d)As the New York legislature failed to appoint its allotted eight electors in time, there were no voting electors from New York.
^(e)Two electors from Maryland did not vote.
^(f)One elector from Virginia did not vote and another elector from Virginia was not chosen because an election district failed to submit returns.
^(g)The identity of this candidate comes from The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections (Gordon DenBoer (ed.), University of Wisconsin Press, 1984, p. 441). Several respected sources, including the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress and the Political Graveyard, show this individual to be James Armstrong of Pennsylvania. However, primary sources, such as the Senate Journal, list only Armstrong's name, not his state. Skeptics observe that Armstrong received his single vote from a Georgia elector. They find this improbable because Armstrong of Pennsylvania was not nationally famous—his public service to that date consisted of being a medical officer during the American Revolution and, at most, a single year as a Pennsylvania judge.

Popular vote Washington   100% Others   0.0%

Electoral vote Washington   100% Adams   46.6% Jay   12.3% Harrison   8.2% Rutledge   8.2% Others   19.2% Not cast   5.5%

Results by state

Popular vote

Elections in this period were vastly different from modern day presidential elections. The actual presidential candidates were rarely mentioned on tickets and voters were voting for particular electors who were pledged to a particular candidate. There was sometimes confusion as to who the particular elector was actually pledged to. Results are reported as the highest result for an elector for any given faction. For example, if three federalist electors received 100, 50, and 25 votes, federalist electors would be recorded as having 100 votes. Confusion surrounding the way results are reported may lead to discrepancies between the sum of all state results and national results.

In Maryland, the state was effectively split into two districts: the western shore and the eastern shore. Five electors were chosen from the western shore and three from the eastern shore. All electors, however, were elected at-large by all Maryland voters. ^[13]

In Delaware, no candidate received the majority of votes, throwing the election to the legislature, who chose the five best-performing elector candidates. ^[14]

Virginian electors John Pride and Patrick Henry had previously voted against ratification of the Constitution. ^[15] John Roane was one of three Clinton Electors. ^{[10] : 3}

The vote totals of Virginia and Delaware appear to be incomplete. In several states candidates of unknown affiliation received votes.

		George Washington Federalist electors			George Washington Anti-Federalist electors			Margin		Not cast	Citation
State	Electoral votes	#	%	Electoral votes	#	%	Electoral votes	#	%
Connecticut	7	No popular vote		7	No popular vote		-	-		-	-
Delaware	3	522	100.00	3	No ballots		-	522	100.00	-	[16]
Georgia	5	No popular vote		5	No popular vote		-	-		-	-
Maryland	6 (8)	7,665	77.09	6	2,278	22.91	-	5,387	54.18	2	[17]
Massachusetts	10	4,477	97.14	10	132	2.86	-	4345	94.28	-	[18]
New Hampshire	5	1,759	100.00	5	No ballots		-	1,759	100.00	-	[19]
New Jersey	6	No popular vote		6	No popular vote		-	-		-	-
New York	0 (8)	Legislature did not choose electors on time						-		-	-
North Carolina	0 (7)	Had not yet ratified Constitution						-		-	-
Pennsylvania	10	6,711	90.90	10	672	9.10	-	6,039	81.80	-	[20]
Rhode Island	0 (3)	Had not yet ratified Constitution						-		-	-
South Carolina	7	No popular vote		7	No popular vote		-	-		-	-
Virginia	10 (12)	3,337	87.98	7	456	12.02	3	2,881	75.96	2	[21]
TOTALS:	69 (91)	24,471	87.37	69	3,538	12.63	0	19,459	64.78	4
TO WIN:	35 (46)

Electoral vote

Sixty-nine electors voted out of a possible 91: Two electors from Maryland and two from Virginia did not vote, the New York State Legislature was deadlocked and the state's 8 electors were not appointed (see below), and North Carolina and Rhode Island with 7 and 3 electoral votes respectively had not yet ratified the Constitution. As per the terms of the unamended constitution, each elector was permitted two votes for president, with a majority of "the whole number of electors appointed" necessary to elect a president. Of the 69 participating electors, each cast one vote for Washington, who was elected president. Of the remaining candidates, only Adams, Jay, and Hancock received votes from more than one state; with 34 votes, Adams finished second behind only Washington, and by virtue of which fact was elected vice president.

State	Electors	Electoral votes	GW Tooltip George Washington	JAd Tooltip John Adams	JJ Tooltip John Jay	RH Tooltip Robert H. Harrison	JR Tooltip John Rutledge	JH Tooltip John Hancock	GC Tooltip George Clinton (vice president)	SH Tooltip Samuel Huntington (statesman)	JM Tooltip John Milton (Georgia politician)	JAr Tooltip James Armstrong (Georgia politician)	BL Tooltip Benjamin Lincoln	ET Tooltip Edward Telfair	Blank
Connecticut	7	14	7	5	—	—	—	—	—	2	—	—	—	—	—
Delaware	3	6	3	—	3	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Georgia	5	10	5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	2	1	1	1	—
Maryland	8	16	6	—	—	6	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	4
Massachusetts	10	20	10	10	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
New Hampshire	5	10	5	5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
New Jersey	6	12	6	1	5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
New York	8	16	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	16
Pennsylvania	10	20	10	8	—	—	—	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
South Carolina	7	14	7	—	—	—	6	1	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Virginia	12	24	10	5	1	—	—	1	3	—	—	—	—	—	4
TOTAL	81	162	69	34	9	6	6	4	3	2	2	1	1	1	24
TO WIN	37	37

Source: "The Electoral College Count for the Presidential Election of 1789". Washington Papers. University of Virginia. Retrieved October 28, 2022.

Failure of New York to appoint electors

Control of the bicameral New York State Legislature was divided following ratification of the federal constitution, and lawmakers could not reach an agreement to appoint electors for the forthcoming presidential contest. Federalists, backed by the great landed families and the city commercial interests, were the largest faction in the Senate, the smaller of the two chambers for which roughly a quarter of the state's free white male population was eligible to vote; but in the House of Representatives, with its larger membership and electorate, Anti-federalists representing the middling interests held the majority. The fight to ratify the United States Constitution was still fresh in the memories of the legislators, and the Anti-Federalists were resentful for having been forced by events to accept the constitution without amendments. Bills to govern the selection of electors were proposed in each house and rejected by the other, leading to an impasse. The deadlock still stood on January 7, 1789, the last day for electors to be chosen by the states, and New York thus failed to appoint the eight electors allocated to it by the constitution. ^{[22] [23]}

Maps

• 
  Map of presidential election results by county, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given faction
• 
  Map of presidential election results by electoral district, shaded according to the vote share of the highest result for an elector of any given faction. Data for several Virginian electoral districts could not be found

Electoral college selection

The Constitution, in Article II, Section 1, provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their Electors were chosen. State legislatures chose different methods: ^[24]

Method of choosing electors	State(s)
electors appointed by state legislature	Connecticut Georgia New Jersey New York (a) South Carolina
two electors appointed by state legislature each remaining elector chosen by state legislature from the two most popular candidates in each U.S. House district	Massachusetts
each elector chosen by voters statewide; however, if no candidate wins majority, state legislature appoints electors from top ten candidates	New Hampshire
state divided into electoral districts, with one elector chosen per district by the voters of that district	Virginia (b) Delaware
electors chosen at large by voters	Maryland Pennsylvania
state had not yet ratified the Constitution	North Carolina Rhode Island

^(a)New York's legislature did not choose electors on time.
^(b)One electoral district failed to choose an elector.

See also

• 1788–89 United States House of Representatives elections
• 1788–89 United States Senate elections
• History of the United States (1789–1849)

Notes

1. This number is a combination of the best-performing Federalist and Anti-Federalist votes
2. The returns from several states are incomplete

1. New York had ratified the Constitution but its legislature failed to appoint presidential electors on time, while North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet ratified. Vermont governed itself as a republic.

References

1. "National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present". United States Election Project. CQ Press.
2. See "Alternative methods for choosing electors" under Electoral College.
3. Meacham 2012.
4. Maier, Pauline (2010). Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN   978-0-684-86854-7., pp. 429-430.
5. Stephens, Frank Fletcher. The transitional period, 1788-1789, in the government of the United States , University of Missouri Press, 1909, pp. 67-74.
6. "Accepting the Presidency". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved February 18, 2023.
7. "A Saturday Session in the First Congress | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives". history.house.gov. Retrieved February 18, 2023.
8. Chernow, 272–273.
9. "VP George Clinton". www.senate.gov. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
10. Dubin, Michael J. (2002). United States Presidential Elections, 1788-1860: The Official Results by County and State. Jefferson: McFarland & Company. pp. 1–3. ISBN   9780786410170.
11. Johnson, Charles J. "Edward Telfair". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 24, 2022.
12. "A New Nation Votes".
13. Stephens, Frank Fletcher (2007). The Transitional Period, 1788-1789, in the Government of the United States. E.W. Stephens. pp. 69–70.
14. "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved July 11, 2024.
15. Pulliam, David Loyd (1901). The Constitutional Conventions of Virginia from the Foundation of the Commonwealth to the Present Time. J. T. West. pp. 37–38.
16. "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
17. "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
18. "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
19. "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
20. "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
21. "A New Nation Votes". elections.lib.tufts.edu. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
22. Merrill Jensen, Gordon DenBoer (1976). The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections, 1788-1790. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 196–197.
23. Ratcliffe, Donald (2013). "The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787-1828". Journal of the Early Republic. 33 (2): 225–229. doi:10.1353/jer.2013.0033. S2CID   145135025.
24. "The Electoral Count for the Presidential Election of 1789". The Papers of George Washington. Archived from the original on September 14, 2013. Retrieved May 4, 2005.

Bibliography

• Bowling, Kenneth R., and Donald R. Kennon. "A New Matrix for National Politics." Inventing Congress: Origins and Establishment of the First Federal Congress. Athens, O.: United States Capitol Historical Society by Ohio U, 1999. 110–37. Print.
• Chernow, Ron (2004). "Alexander Hamilton". London, UK: Penguin Books. ISBN   978-1101200858.
• Collier, Christopher. "Voting and American Democracy." The American People as Christian White Men of Property:Suffrage and Elections in Colonial and Early National America. N.p.: U of Connecticut, n.d, 1999.
• DenBoer, Gordon, ed. (1990). The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections, 1788–1790 . University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN   978-0-299-06690-1.
• Dinkin, Robert J. Voting in Revolutionary America: A Study of Elections in the Original Thirteen States, 1776–1789. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982.
• Ellis, Richard J. (1999). Founding the American Presidency. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN   978-0-8476-9499-0.
• McCullough, David (1990). John Adams . Simon & Schuster. ISBN   978-1-4165-7588-7.
• Meacham, Jon (2012). Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power. Random House. ISBN   978-1-4000-6766-4.
• Novotny, Patrick. The Parties in American Politics, 1789–2016.
• Paullin, Charles O. "The First Elections Under The Constitution." The Iowa Journal of History and Politics 2 (1904): 3-33. Web. February 20, 2017.
• Shade, William G., and Ballard C. Campbell. "The Election of 1788-89." American Presidential Campaigns and Elections. Ed. Craig R. Coenen. Vol. 1. Armonk, NY: Sharpe Reference, 2003. 65–77. Print.

External links

• Presidential Election of 1789: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
• A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns, 1787–1825 Archived January 20, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
• "A Historical Analysis of the Electoral College". The Green Papers. Retrieved February 17, 2005.
• Election of 1789 in Counting the Votes Archived May 25, 2016, at the Wayback Machine