This period saw the outbreak of World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945), which are among the deadliest conflicts in human history, with many of the world's great powers partaking in total war and some partaking in genocides. Depending on the source consulted, conflict deaths reached an all-time peak in either 1941 or 1942 at 2.96–7.71 million, during the height of the latter conflict.[1]
Besides the aforementioned world wars, a number of smaller conflicts also took place. In Africa, conflicts of this era were mostly fought between European colonial forces on one side and native kingdoms and insurgents on the other, though there are exceptions (e.g. the Italo-Turkish War, as well as intercolonial invasions of German, Italian and Vichy French possessions in the World Wars). Likewise, Southeast Asia saw a large variety of native rebellions against the American, European and Japanese colonial empires, while also seeing the intercolonial Pacific War.
Other parts of Afro-Eurasia, as well as the Americas, saw a wide variety of conventional wars, civil wars, ethnic or political conflicts, revolutions, and small rebellions. Prior to 1940, Australia saw only sporadic conflict as the frontier wars entered its final stages. However, in World War II, Australia became the site of Axis naval activityand air raids.
The Tudeh Party of Iran is an Iranian communist party. Formed in 1941, with Soleiman Mirza Eskandari as its head, it had considerable influence in its early years and played an important role during Mohammad Mosaddegh's campaign to nationalize the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and his term as prime minister. From the Iran crisis of 1946 onwards, Tudeh became a pro-Soviet organization and remained prepared to carry out the dictates of the Kremlin, even if it meant sacrificing Iranian political independence and sovereignty. The crackdown that followed the 1953 coup against Mosaddegh is said to have "destroyed" the party, although a remnant persisted. The party still exists but has remained much weaker as a result of its banning in Iran and mass arrests by the Islamic Republic in 1982, as well as the executions of political prisoners in 1988. Tudeh identified itself as the historical offshoot of the Communist Party of Persia.
The Party of Resurrection of the Iranian Nation, or simply the Rastakhiz Party, was Iran's sole legal political party from 2 March 1975 until 1 November 1978, founded by Mohammad Reza Shah.
Mirza Hasan Ashtiani, commonly known by the bestowed title Mostowfi ol-Mamalek was an Iranian politician who served as Prime Minister on six occasions from 1910 to 1927.
The Jungle Party was a secessionist party active in northern Iran during 1940s. The party was founded by armed rebels and some of Mirza Kuchik Khan's old associates who tried to revive the Persian Socialist Soviet Republic created in 1921 and used its red flag as a symbol. It allied with the Iran Party, Tudeh Party of Iran, Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan and Azerbaijani Democratic Party in 1946.
Revival Party or Modernity Party was a secular progressive political party in Persia/Iran during 1920s. The party had also liberal and nationalist tendencies and supported Reza Khan and helped him become the new Shah of Iran while holding majority in the parliament.
Parliamentary elections were held in Iran in 1952 to elect the 17th Iranian Majlis.
Kurdish separatism in Iran or the Kurdish–Iranian conflict is an ongoing, long-running, separatist dispute between the Kurdish opposition in Western Iran and the governments of Iran, lasting since the emergence of Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1918.
The elections for the sixth Majlis ended on 27 June 1926.
Society of Muslim Mojaheds or Society of Mojahedin of Islam, alternatively translated as Society of Muslim Warriors, was a Shia Islamist organization in Iran founded in late 1948. Led by Abol-Ghasem Kashani, the organization served as his multi-task religious, political, cultural, and social executive arm and mouthpiece. It was adept at mobilizing crowds for street control, gang fights, strikes and demonstrations.
Iranian Democrat Party or Democrat Party of Iran was a short-lived political party in Iran, founded in 1946 and led by Ahmad Qavam. It was the most important party formed by the old Qajar nobility, and an association of aristocrats and anti-British radical intellectuals. With the fall of Qavam, it disintegrated in 1948.
The Iran Party is a socialist and nationalist party in Iran. Founded in 1941, it is described as the "backbone of the National Front", the leading umbrella organization of Iranian nationalists established in 1949. The party's total membership has never exceeded the several hundred figure.
Motherland Party, National Party or Patriotic Party was a party in Iran during 1940s. It was a small organization of intellectuals and a triumvirate of three parties called Peykār (transl. Battle) Esteqlāl (transl. Independence) and Mihanparastān (transl. Patriots).
Abdullah Moazami was an Iranian lawyer and politician. He taught at University of Tehran and was a member of Parliament of Iran for four consecutive terms from 1944 to 1953. Moazami came from an upper-class and titled landlord family and has been described as a "man of moderate demeanor and connected with several factions by both family and politics".
Socialism in Iran or Iranian socialism is a political ideology that traces its beginnings to the 20th century and encompasses various political parties in the country. Iran experienced a short Third World Socialism period at the zenith of the Tudeh Party after the abdication of Reza Shah and his replacement by his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. After failing to reach power, this form of third world socialism was replaced by Mosaddegh's populist, non-aligned Iranian nationalism of the National Front party as the main anti-monarchy force in Iran, reaching power (1949–1953), and it remained with that strength even in opposition until the rise of Islamism and the Iranian Revolution. The Tudehs have moved towards basic socialist communism since then.
Prime Minister Ahmad Qavam formed a short-lived coalition government on 1 August 1946 with his Democrat Party of Iran and the left-wing Tudeh Party and Iran Party. He offered three portfolios to the communists and gave the ministries of finance and communications to two royalists; while maintained his own control over interior and foreign ministries.
Noureddin Alamouti (1901–1965) was an Iranian judge and politician. He served as the justice minister under the cabinet of Ali Amini, during which he was noted for forming a powerful anti-corruption division that led to "the last serious attempt to realize the rule of law" in Pahlavi dynasty.
Fereydoun Keshavarz was an Iranian physician and communist politician.
Reza Radmanesh was an Iranian physicist, communist politician and general secretary of the Tudeh Party of Iran. According to Abbas Milani, he was "one of the most prominent members of the Iranian communist movement".
Seyyed Mohammad-Sadegh Tabatabaei was an Iranian politician, constitutionalist activist affiliated with the Secret Society and journalist.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Niblock, Tim (January 1987). Class and Power in Sudan: The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics, 1898–1985. SUNY Press. p.162. ISBN978-1-4384-1466-9. Primary resistance took three forms. First. nabi 'Isa movements emerged in the northern Sudan, among parts of the population which had been strongly influenced by Mahdism. Such movements were based on the belief, emanating from Islamic eschatology, that the anti-Christ (al-daffal) who had destroyed the rule of the Mandi and his successor would in due course be defeated by Jesus (nabi 'lea) descending from heaven and leading the Muslims to victory. A number of self-professed nabi 'Isas arose in the years following 1898. Even the more successful of these, however, only managed to secure a very localised support. The principal nabi 'Isa uprisings were those staged by Muhammad al-Amin in Tegale (1903); Adam Wad Muhammad in Sennar (1904); 'Abd al-Qadir Wad Habbuba in the Gezira (1908)' Faki Najm al-Din in Kordofan (1912); and Ahmad 'Umar in Darfur (1915). Second, sporadic tribal uprisings took place in the southern Sudan and in the Nuba mountains over the first 30 years of Condominium rule. Of particular importance was the Nuer resistance, led by Den-gkur and Diu (1899–1908); the Zande resistance under Sultan Yam-bio (1900–1905); the scattered but continuing incidents in the Nuba mountains (going up to 1918); the risings among the Agar Dinka (1901) and the Atwot Dinka (1903–10); and the widely-based rising among the Nuer in 1927' The Condominium authorities suppressed these uprisings mainly by despatching punitive expeditions, with the occasional aerial bombardments in the period which followed the First World War.
↑ White, John Albert (2002-06-27). Transition to Global Rivalry: Alliance Diplomacy and the Quadruple Entente, 1895–1907. Cambridge University Press. p.131. ISBN978-0-521-52665-4. Revolutionary activity began in Central Asia well before the St. Petersburg events of January 1905. The railway workers at Kala-i-Mor near Kushka struck in 1902 and the Russian railway workers of Tashkent demonstrated on May 1, 1904. Central Asia was thus prepared to join in the great strike of October 1905 and did so formally and officially on a signal from the strike committee of Ashkhabad at midnight on the night of October 13–14. The Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich who was then in Tashkent noted on October 26 that the strike appeared to be over and it officially ended the next day only to begin again when the First Tashkent Reserve Battalion and other units mutinied on November 15. General Dean Ivanovich Subotich, who was sent in early 1906 to take over the troubled city of Tashkent, tried, at a time of administrative weakness, to restore order by appeasing the terrorists and revolutionaries, thus assisting them. When the government began to regain control of the situation, Subotich and his assistant, General V. V. Sakharov, were relieved of their commands. The government never lost complete control of the region and by early 1907 it was once more in command of the situation.
↑ Becker, Seymour (2004-08-02). Russia's Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva, 1865–1924. Routledge. p.171. ISBN978-1-134-33583-1. With Russia's permission Bukharan officials finally began to collect taxes in Shugnan-Roshan in March 1903, and they immediately met with opposition from the inhabitants, who had just weathered a particularly severe winter with great losses of cattle and crops. The Russian authorities at Khorog and Tashkent tried to steer a middle course between the population and the Bukharan officials, persuading the inhabitants not to revolt or flee while prevailing upon the emir's government to ease the tax burden. Russia's efforts were to no avail, and open rebellion occurred in Vakhan, where the intervention of Russian troops from a nearby Russian frontier post was necessary to free ten Bukharan tax collectors and to suppress the disorders. The Russians arrested the rebel leaders and turned them over to the Bukharan administration. Governor General N.A.Ivanov sent his diplomatic attaché, A.Polovtsev, to investigate the disturbances and explain to the population that Russia expected them to obey their own government and would not tolerate any failure to do so. Ivanov meanwbile departed from the policy of his predecessor by urging the immediate annexation of Shugnan-Roshan.
↑ "Arabia, Yemen, and Iraq 1700-1950 by Sanderson Beck". www.san.beck.org. Retrieved 2019-06-21. Abdul Aziz ibn Saud still had to put down occasional revolts by the tribes. In May 1907 the Mutair tribe was defeated at Majma'a and pardoned. They rebelled again and were defeated at Buraida.
↑ Henige, David (1979). History in Africa. African Studies Association. p.54. By the time Portuguese military expeditions reached Kasanje in 1910, intent on effective occupation and "pacification," only regional chieftains, some still claiming the kinguri title, remained to resist their advance. Portuguese military commanders seized and destroyed the regalia of the kinguri position in 1912, thereby ending the history of the state by burning the symbols in which had inhered the power of its kings.
↑ Peil, Margaret; Oyeneye, Olatunji Y. (1998). Consensus, Conflict, and Change: A Sociological Introduction to African Societies. East African Publishers. p.115. ISBN978-9966-46-747-8. The second important reaction was the Sadiavahe movement (1915-17). This was an armed peasant uprising which first began in the south-west on the left bank of the river Menarandra in early February 1915 and spread very quickly to the districts of Ampanihy and Tsihombe. The Sadiavahe stole cattle, attacked villages, cut telegraph wires. and withdrew into hiding-places well away from the posts controlled by the administration. They formed bands, ranging in number from ten to forty members at most, which were extremely mobile. Among the reasons why entire villages gave open or clandestine support to the Sadiavahe was the acute poverty of the population as a result of the very infrequent but violent rainfall, the imposition of a cattle tax, and the far-reaching of fats of the First World War, which had led to the mobilisation of people and to food shortages.
↑ Davis, Ronald W. (1975). "The Liberian Struggle for Authority on the Kru Coast". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 8 (2): 222–265. doi:10.2307/216649. ISSN0361-7882. JSTOR216649.
↑ Sokol, Edward Dennis (2016). The Revolt of 1916 in Russian Central Asia. JHU Press. p.136. ISBN9781421420509. These Yomud Turkomans situated along the Persian border proved much more difficult to deal with. These Yomuds had shown their rebellious disposition before when in 1912 and 1915 those subject to the Khivan khanate revolted. In 1915 an attack was organized against the city of Khiva and was beaten off only with the help of Russian troops under General Galkin.
↑ Grataloup, Christian (2019). Die Geschichte der Welt Ein Atlas (in German) (8thed.). Germany: C. H. Beck (published 2022). pp.347 page. ISBN978-3-406-77345-7.
↑ The Third Afghan War 1919 Official Account p. 13
↑ Adamec, Ludwig W. (1975). Historical and Political Who's who of Afghanistan(PDF). Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. p.166. ISBN978-3-201-00921-8. There was an abortive uprising by the Safi regiment in his favour in June 1920. This regiment was raised in Tagao by Sardar Inayatullah.
↑ Joab B. Eilon, Yoav Alon. The making of Jordan: tribes, colonialism and the modern state. 2007: pp.54–56.
↑ Machado, Manuel A. (1972). "The United States and the De la Huerta Rebellion". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 75 (3): 303–324. ISSN0038-478X. JSTOR30238152.
↑ Olson, Robert (1991). "The Turkoman Rebellion in Eastern Iran, 1924-5: Its Consequences and the Soviet Reaction". Die Welt des Islams. 31 (2): 216–227. doi:10.2307/1570580. ISSN0043-2539. JSTOR1570580.
1 2 3 4 5 Olson, Robert (2013-12-18). The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion, 1880–1925. University of Texas Press. p.205. ISBN9780292764125. 39. Tuncay, Tek-Parti, pp. 127–128 n., gives a list of eighteen rebellions as recorded in Türkiye Cumhuriyeti nde Ayaklanmalar (1924–1938), which is an official version of Turkish military history as written by the General Staff of the Turkish Armed Forces in 1972. Tuncay considers the Nestorian (Nasturi) rebellion of September 1924 not directly connected to the Kurdish rebellions. The following list is from Tuncay. (1) Nestorian (Nasturi) rebellion (12–28 September 1924); (2) Sheikh Said rebellion (13 February–31 May 1925); (3) Raçkotan and Raman pacifying operations (9–12 August 1925); (4) Sason (Sasun) rebellion (1925–1937); (5) First Ağri (Ararat) rebellion (16 May–17 June 1926) Koçuşaği rebellion (7 October–30 November 1927); (7) Mutki rebellion (26 May–25 August 1927); (8) Second Ağri (Ararat) rebellion (13–20 September 1927); (9) Bicar suppression (7 October–17 November 1927); (10) Asi Resul rebellion (22 May-3 August 1929); (11) Tendürük rebellion (14–27 September 1929); (12) Savur suppression (26 May-9 June 1930); (13) Zeylan rebellion (20 June-beginning of September 1930); (14) Aramar rebellion (16 July-10 October 1930); (15) Third Ağrı (Ararat) rebellion (7–14 November 1930); (16) Pülümür rebellion (8 October-14 November 1930); (17) Menemen rebellion (December 1930); (18) Tunceli (Dersim) suppression (1937–1938)
↑ "Baluchistan: A Repugnant Iranian Occupation | الإخبارية". www.alekhbariya.net. Retrieved 2020-04-06. Approximately three months after Arabistan, in 1928, the Iranian regime occupied Baluchistan after the defeat of Baluchi forces at the hands of the army of the founder of the Pahlavi line, Reza Shah Pahlavi.
↑ Rehman, Zia (2014). "The Baluch insurgency: linking Iran to Pakistan"(PDF). files.ethz.ch. p.1. In 1928 independent West Baluchistan (today the Sistan and Baluchistan Province of Iran) was forcibly annexed to Iran by Reza Shah Pahlavi
↑ Salzman, Philip (2008). "Politics and Change among the Baluch in Iran"(PDF). But everything changed after Reza Shah's military campaign in 1928–35 which brought Baluchistan under Persian control (Arfa 1964: Ch. 13). The tribes were "pacified" and forced to accept the suzerainty of the Shah. Consequently raiding was suppressed, and gradually the tribes were disarmed. Control was imposed over thehakomates, with vari-ous oasis forts knocked down by the Shah's artillery.
1 2 Khan, Hafeez R. (1960). "Afghanistan and Pakistan". Pakistan Horizon. 13 (1): 55. ISSN0030-980X. JSTOR41392239. 1933: Siege of Matun, the capital of the Afghan province of Khost, by the Mohmands. 1937: Uprising of the Mohmand, the Shinwari and the Sulayman Khel section of the Ghilzai. 1938: Abortive tribal movement under the Shami Pir to oust King Zahir Shah
1 2 Jalali, Ali (2002). "Rebuilding Afghanistan's National Army". ssi.armywarcollege.ed. Retrieved 10 September 2019. The situation enabled the army to successfully respond to simultaneous internal disturbances, including the Katawz rebellion in 1937–39, the Shinwari revolt of 1938, Alizai-Durani unrest in 1939, and the 1944–45 rebellion of the Safi tribe in eastern Kunar province.
↑ "Before Taliban". publishing.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2019-08-16. his father helped to mediate three tribal uprisings—one among the Zadran tribe in Paktia Province, the Safi uprising in 1945 (about which Qazi Amin had little information), and an uprising among the Shinwari, which he believed occurred in the late 1930s or early 1940s.
↑ "Before Taliban". publishing.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2019-08-16. Qazi Amin knew the most about the Shinwari upheaval, which he said centered around Shinwari leader Muhammad Afzal's right to keep fifty militiamen whose salaries were paid by the government. Qazi Amin believed that Afzal was holding out for increased privileges from the government, and when he didn't get his way, he attacked the local government base and set up his own government. Because his father had lived a long time in the Shinwari area, he was in a position to mediate between the government and Afzal, who eventually gave up his opposition.
↑ Martin, Mike (2014). An Intimate War: An Oral History of the Helmand Conflict, 1978–2012. Oxford University Press. p.27. ISBN978-0190237912. The two monarchs from the dynasty, Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah, did not immediately learn from the lessons of Amanullah and faced a number of serious rebellions in their early years, such as in the winter of 1938/9. The government was carrying out a campaign for compulsory (male) education, which was used as a rallying cry by Alizai mullahs who said that female education would be next-a red line for the tribes of the south. what started as an Alizai disturbance quickly spread to the other tribes and there was a confrontation between the government and the tribesmen at Yakhchal, near Gereshk, which was eventually resolved when the government employed aircraft (bought from the British) against the tribesmen.
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