Sound and language in Middle-earth

Last updated

J. R. R. Tolkien was both a philologist and an author of high fantasy. He had a private theory that the sound of words was directly connected to their meaning, and that certain sounds were inherently beautiful. Scholars believe he intentionally chose words and names in his constructed Middle-earth languages to create feelings such as of beauty, longing, and strangeness. Tolkien stated that he wrote his stories to provide a setting for his languages, rather than the other way around. Tolkien constructed languages for the Elves to sound pleasant, and the Black Speech of the evil land of Mordor to sound harsh; poetry suitable for various peoples of his invented world of Middle-earth; and many place-names, chosen to convey the nature of each region. The theory is individual, but it was in the context of literary and artistic movements such as Vorticism, and earlier nonsense verse that stressed language and the sound of words, even when the words were apparently nonsense.

Contents

Context

Author

As well as being an author of high fantasy, J. R. R. Tolkien was a professional philologist, a scholar of comparative and historical linguistics. He was an expert in Old English and related languages. He remarked to the poet and The New York Times book reviewer Harvey Breit that "I am a philologist and all my work is philological"; [1] he explained to his American publisher Houghton Mifflin that this was meant to imply that his work was "all of a piece, and fundamentally linguistic [sic] in inspiration. ... The invention of languages is the foundation. The 'stories' were made rather to provide a world for the languages than the reverse. To me a name comes first and the story follows." [2] Human sub-creation, in Tolkien's view, to some extent mirrors divine creation as thought and sound together bring into being a new world. [3]

Artistic and literary movements

Early 20th century movements like Italian Futurism stressed language and the sound of words. Gino Severini's 1912 Dynamic Hieroglyphic of the Bal Tabarin (detail shown) incorporates words like "Bowling" and "POLKA" in its imagery. Gino Severini, 1912, Dynamic Hieroglyphic of the Bal Tabarin (detail).jpg
Early 20th century movements like Italian Futurism stressed language and the sound of words. Gino Severini's 1912 Dynamic Hieroglyphic of the Bal Tabarin (detail shown) incorporates words like "Bowling" and "POLKA" in its imagery.

The Tolkien scholar Dimitra Fimi notes that around 1900 there were multiple artistic and literary movements that stressed language and the sound of words, and the possibility of conveying meaning even with words that were apparently nonsense. These included Italian Futurism, British Vorticism, and the Imagism of the poet Ezra Pound. Fimi further observes that in the late 19th century, nonsense poets such as Lewis Carroll with his Jabberwocky and Edward Lear sought to convey meaning using invented words. [4] [5]

Tolkien's "linguistic heresy"

An aesthetic pleasure

Untranslated, but still appreciated: the long version of "A Elbereth Gilthoniel," written in Tolkien's Tengwar script Aerlinn in Edhil o Imladris.png
Untranslated, but still appreciated: the long version of "A Elbereth Gilthoniel," written in Tolkien's Tengwar script

The linguist Allan Turner [7] writes that "the sound pattern of a language was the source of a special aesthetic pleasure" for Tolkien. [8] In his essay about constructing languages, "A Secret Vice", Tolkien wrote that

The communication factor has been very powerful in directing the development of language; but the more individual and personal factor—pleasure in articulate sound, and in the symbolic use of it, independent of communication though constantly in fact entangled with it – must not be forgotten for a moment." [T 1]

Tolkien explained in the essay that the person inventing a language must address the "fitting of notion to oral symbol", and that the pleasure in such invention derives mainly from the "contemplation of the relation between sound and notion". He went so far as to state that he was "personally more interested perhaps in word-form in itself, and in word-form in relation to meaning (so-called phonetic fitness) than in any other department". [T 2]

The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey notes that in The Fellowship of the Ring , the poem A Elbereth Gilthoniel , written in Sindarin, one of Tolkien's invented Elvish languages, is presented directly without translation: [6] [9]

A Elbereth Gilthoniel
silivren penna míriel
o menel aglar elenath!
Na-chaered palan-díriel
o galadhremmin ennorath,
Fanuilos, le linnathon
nef aear, sí nef aearon! [T 3]

Placenames of Bree-land, with the villages of Bree, Combe, Staddle, and Archet in the Chetwood. The names are English, with British (Celtic) elements. Bree Map.svg
Placenames of Bree-land, with the villages of Bree, Combe, Staddle, and Archet in the Chetwood. The names are English, with British (Celtic) elements.

Shippey asks rhetorically what any reader could be expected to make of that. He answers his own question by stating that Tolkien had a private theory of sound and language. This was that the sound of words was directly connected to their meaning, and that certain sounds were inherently beautiful. He intentionally chose words and names in his constructed Middle-earth languages to create feelings such as of beauty, longing, and strangeness. Shippey gives as one example Tolkien's statement that he had used such names as Bree, Archet, Combe, and Chetwood for the small area, outside the Shire, where Hobbits and Men lived together. Tolkien selected them for their non-English elements so that they would sound "queer", with "a style that we should perhaps vaguely feel to be 'Celtic'". [6]

Shippey calls this "Tolkien's major linguistic heresy". It would work, he explains, if people could recognise different styles in language, somehow sense the depth of history in words, get some degree of meaning just from the sounds of words, and even judge some sound combinations beautiful. Tolkien, he writes, believed that "untranslated elvish would do a job that English could not". [6] Shippey notes, too, that Tolkien is recorded as saying that "cellar door" sounded more beautiful than the word "beautiful"; [6] the phrase had however been admired by others from at least 1903. [10]

An unconventional view

The bouba/kiki effect shows that across cultures, sounds like "kiki" are linked with sharpness (left) and sounds like "bouba" with roundness (right), i.e. that sound symbolism is widespread. Booba-Kiki.svg
The bouba/kiki effect shows that across cultures, sounds like "kiki" are linked with sharpness (left) and sounds like "bouba" with roundness (right), i.e. that sound symbolism is widespread.

Tolkien's point of view was a "heresy" because the usual structuralist view of language is that there is no connection between specific sounds and meanings. [8] Thus "pig" denotes an animal in English but "pige" denotes a girl in Danish: the allocation of sounds to meanings in different languages has been taken by linguists to be arbitrary, and it is just an accidental by-product that English people find the sound of "pig" to be hoglike. [6]

Tolkien was somewhat embarrassed by the subject of his linguistic aesthetics, as he was aware of the conventional view, due to Ferdinand de Saussure and from the 1950s strengthened by Noam Chomsky and his generative grammar school, that linguistic signs (such as words) were arbitrary, unrelated to their real-world referents (things, people, places). The Tolkien scholar Ross Smith notes that Tolkien was in fact not the only person who disagreed with the conventional view, "unassailable giants of linguistic theory and philosophy like [Otto] Jespersen and [Roman] Jakobson" among them. [11]

More recently, sound symbolism has been demonstrated to be widespread in natural language. [12] [13] [14] The bouba/kiki effect, for example, describes the cross-cultural association of sounds like "bouba" with roundness and "kiki" with sharpness. [15] [16] Svetlana Popova comments that Tolkien "came very close" to the findings of psycholinguistics including the bouba/kiki effect, and that his ideas of what makes the sound of a language pleasurable agree with David Crystal's findings. [17]

True names

A specific form of direct association of word and meaning is the true name, the ancient belief that there is a name for a thing or a being that is congruent with it; knowledge of a true name might give one power over that thing or being. [18] Tolkien hints at true names in a few places in his Middle-earth writings. Thus, the Ent or tree-giant Treebeard says in The Two Towers that "Real names tell you the story of the things they belong to in my language", [8] while in The Hobbit , the Wizard Gandalf introduces himself with the statement "I am Gandalf, and Gandalf means me". [8]

In the case of Tom Bombadil, an enigmatic character in The Fellowship of the Ring who always speaks in a singing metre and often sings, [19] Turner comments that "the propositional content of language seems to have been absorbed into the music of the sounds alone". [8] Further, Shippey notes, when Tom Bombadil names something, like the ponies that the Hobbits are riding, "the name sticks – the animals respond to nothing else for the rest of their lives". [19] Smith remarked that the sound of the phrase "Tom Bombadil" itself fits very well with the name's "jolly, rumbustious owner". [11]

Analysis

Linguistic geography

In Turner's view, Tolkien's "linguistic heresy" explains why he believed that his use of different linguistic choices would allow his readers to feel, without understanding why, the distinct nature of each region of Middle-earth. [8]

Turner's analysis of Tolkien's "linguistic heresy" [8]
Place-namesLinguistic originReader's feeling
Bree, Crickhollow Welsh (British, Celtic)Slightly exotic
Hobbiton, Bywater(Old) EnglishFamiliar
Lothlórien, Gondor Sindarin/Quenya (Elvish)Alien

Keatsian listening

Tolkien described a Keatsian style of listening to poetry and song. Portrait of John Keats by William Hilton, c. 1822 John Keats by William Hilton.jpg
Tolkien described a Keatsian style of listening to poetry and song. Portrait of John Keats by William Hilton, c. 1822

Tolkien allows his characters to listen and appreciate "in highly Keatsian style", [20] enjoying the sound of language, as when the Hobbit Frodo Baggins, recently recovered from his near-fatal wound with the Nazgûl's Morgul-knife, sits dreamily in the safe Elvish haven of Rivendell: [20]

At first the beauty of the melodies and of the interwoven words in elven-tongues, even though he understood them little, held him in a spell, as soon as he began to attend to them. Almost it seemed that the words took shape, and visions of far lands and bright things that he had never yet imagined opened out before him; and the firelit hall became like a golden mist above the seas of foam that sighed upon the margins of the world. Then the enchantment became more and more dreamlike, until he felt that an endless river of swelling gold and silver was flowing over him, too multitudinous for its pattern to be comprehended; it became part of the throbbing air about him, and it drenched and drowned him. Swiftly he sank under its shining weight into a deep realm of sleep. [T 3]

When the Hobbits meet Gildor and his Elves while walking through the Shire, they get the feeling, as Turner comments, that even though they do not speak Elvish, they "subliminally understand something of the meaning". [8] In The Two Towers, while a party of the Fellowship of the Ring is crossing the grassy plains of Rohan, the immortal Elf Legolas hears Aragorn singing a song in a language he has never heard, and comments "That, I guess, is the language of the Rohirrim ... for it is like to this land itself, rich and rolling in part, and else hard and stern as the mountains. But I cannot guess what it means, save that it is laden with the sadness of Mortal Men". [6] When Gandalf declaims the Rhyme of the Rings in the Black Speech of the evil land of Mordor at the Council of Elrond, his voice becomes "menacing, powerful, harsh as stone" and the Elves cover their ears. [6] When the Dwarf Gimli sings of the Dwarf-King Durin, the gardener Hobbit Sam Gamgee says "I like that! I should like to learn it. In Moria, in Khazad-Dum!" [6] Shippey remarks that Sam's response to the sound of language is "obviously ... a model one". [6]

Phonetic fitness of Tolkien's constructed languages

The linguist Joanna Podhorodecka examines the lámatyáve, a Quenya term for "phonetic fitness", of Tolkien's constructed languages. She analyses them in terms of Ivan Fonágy's theory of symbolic vocal gestures that convey emotions. She notes that Tolkien's inspiration was "primarily linguistic"; and that he had invented the stories "to provide a world for the languages", which in turn were "agreeable to [his] personal aesthetic". [21] She compares two samples of Elvish (one Sindarin, one Quenya) and one of Black Speech, tabulating the proportions of vowels and consonants. The Black Speech is 63% consonants, compared to the Elvish samples' 52% and 55%. Among other features, the sound /I:/ (like the "i" in "machine") is much rarer in Black Speech than in Elvish, while the sound /u/ (like the "u" in "brute") is much more common. She comments that in aggressive speech, consonants become longer and vowels shorter, so Black Speech sounds harsher. Further, Black Speech contains far more voiced plosives (/b, d, g/) than Elvish, making the sound of the language more violent. Podhorodecka concludes that Tolkien's constructed languages were certainly individual to him, but that their "linguistic patterns resulted from his keen sense of phonetic metaphor", so that the languages subtly contribute to the "aesthetic and axiological aspects of his mythology". [21] She notes, too, that Tolkien commented that in his 'Elven-latin' language Quenya, he chose to include "two other (main) ingredients that happen to give me 'phonaesthetic' pleasure: Finnish and Greek"; and that he gave Sindarin "a linguistic character very like (though not identical with) British-Welsh: because that character is one I find, in some linguistic moods, very attractive; and because it seems to fit the rather 'Celtic' type of legends and stories told of its speakers". [21] [T 4] Christopher Robinson concurs that Tolkien took extreme care to ensure phonetic fitness in his languages, arguing that Tolkien's detailed philological analysis and knowledge of linguistics enabled him to achieve a highly-polished result. [22]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tengwar</span> Fictional script in the fantasy works of J. R. R. Tolkien

The Tengwar script is an artificial script, one of several scripts created by J. R. R. Tolkien, the author of The Lord of the Rings. Within the context of Tolkien's fictional world, the Tengwar were invented by the Elf Fëanor, and used first to write the Elvish languages Quenya and Telerin. Later a great number of Tolkien's constructed languages were written using the Tengwar, including Sindarin. Tolkien used Tengwar to write English: most of Tolkien's Tengwar samples are actually in English.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elvish languages of Middle-earth</span> Group of fictional languages in the fantasy works of J. R. R. Tolkien

The Elvish languages of Middle-earth, constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien, include Quenya and Sindarin. These were the various languages spoken by the Elves of Middle-earth as they developed as a society throughout the Ages. In his pursuit for realism and in his love of language, Tolkien was especially fascinated with the development and evolution of language through time. Tolkien created two almost fully developed languages and a dozen more in various beginning stages as he studied and reproduced the way that language adapts and morphs. A philologist by profession, he spent much time on his constructed languages. In the collection of letters he had written, posthumously published by his son, Christopher Tolkien, he stated that he began stories set within this secondary world, the realm of Middle-earth, not with the characters or narrative as one would assume, but with a created set of languages. The stories and characters serve as conduits to make those languages come to life. Inventing language was always a crucial piece to Tolkien's mythology and world building. As Tolkien stated:

The invention of languages is the foundation. The 'stories' were made rather to provide a world for the languages than the reverse. To me a name comes first and the story follows.

The English philologist and author J. R. R. Tolkien created several constructed languages, mostly related to his fictional world of Middle-earth. Inventing languages, something that he called glossopoeia, was a lifelong occupation for Tolkien, starting in his teens.

Treebeard, or Fangorn in Sindarin, is a tree-giant character in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. He is an Ent and is said by Gandalf to be "the oldest living thing that still walks beneath the Sun upon this Middle-earth." He lives in the ancient Forest of Fangorn, to which he has given his name. It lies at the southern end of the Misty Mountains. He is described as being about 14 feet in height, and in appearance similar to a beech or an oak.

The Black Speech is one of the fictional languages constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien for his legendarium, where it was spoken in the evil realm of Mordor. In the fiction, Tolkien describes the language as created by Sauron as a constructed language to be the sole language of all the servants of Mordor.

Westron, Adûni, or Sôval Phârë, is the constructed language that was supposedly the Common Speech used in J. R. R. Tolkien's world of Middle-earth in the Third Age, at the time of The Lord of the Rings. It supposedly developed from Adûnaic, the ancient language of Númenor. In practice in the novel, Westron is nearly always represented by modern English, in a process of pseudo-translation which also sees Rohirric represented by Old English. That process allowed Tolkien not to develop Westron or Rohirric in any detail. In the Appendices of the novel, Tolkien gives some examples of Westron words.

In J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, the Elves or Quendi are a sundered (divided) people. They awoke at Cuiviénen on the continent of Middle-earth, where they were divided into three tribes: Minyar, Tatyar and Nelyar. After some time, they were summoned by Oromë to live with the Valar in Valinor, on Aman. That summoning and the Great Journey that followed split the Elves into two main groups, which were never fully reunited.

The Lhammas, Noldorin for "account of tongues", is a work of fictional sociolinguistics, written by J. R. R. Tolkien in 1937, and published in the 1987 The Lost Road and Other Writings, volume five of The History of Middle-earth series.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the real-world history and notable fictional elements of J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy universe. It covers materials created by Tolkien; the works on his unpublished manuscripts, by his son Christopher Tolkien; and films, games and other media created by other people.

J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy books on Middle-earth, especially The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion, drew on a wide array of influences including language, Christianity, mythology, archaeology, ancient and modern literature, and personal experience. He was inspired primarily by his profession, philology; his work centred on the study of Old English literature, especially Beowulf, and he acknowledged its importance to his writings.

In J. R. R. Tolkien's writings, Elves are the first fictional race to appear in Middle-earth. Unlike Men and Dwarves, Elves do not die of disease or old age. Should they die in battle or of grief, their souls go to the Halls of Mandos in Aman. After a long life in Middle-earth, Elves yearn for the Earthly Paradise of Valinor, and can sail there from the Grey Havens. They feature in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Their history is described in detail in The Silmarillion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quenya</span> Fictional language in the fantasy works of J. R. R. Tolkien

Quenya is a constructed language, one of those devised by J. R. R. Tolkien for the Elves in his Middle-earth fiction.

Sindarin is one of the constructed languages devised by J. R. R. Tolkien for use in his fantasy stories set in Arda, primarily in Middle-earth. Sindarin is one of the many languages spoken by the Elves.

The poetry in The Lord of the Rings consists of the poems and songs written by J. R. R. Tolkien, interspersed with the prose of his high fantasy novel of Middle-earth, The Lord of the Rings. The book contains over 60 pieces of verse of many kinds; some poems related to the book were published separately. Seven of Tolkien's songs, all but one from The Lord of the Rings, were made into a song-cycle, The Road Goes Ever On, set to music by Donald Swann. All the poems in The Lord of the Rings were set to music and published on CDs by The Tolkien Ensemble.

England and Englishness are represented in multiple forms within J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth writings; it appears, more or less thinly disguised, in the form of the Shire and the lands close to it; in kindly characters such as Treebeard, Faramir, and Théoden; in its industrialised state as Isengard and Mordor; and as Anglo-Saxon England in Rohan. Lastly, and most pervasively, Englishness appears in the words and behaviour of the hobbits, both in The Hobbit and in The Lord of the Rings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Celtic influences on Tolkien</span> Theme in Tolkiens Middle-earth writings

J. R. R. Tolkien derived the characters, stories, places, and languages of Middle-earth from many sources. Among these are the Celtic legends and languages, which for Tolkien were principally Irish and Welsh. He gave multiple conflicting reasons for his liking for Welsh. Tolkien stated directly that he had made use of Welsh phonology and grammar for his constructed Elvish language Sindarin. Scholars have identified multiple legends, both Irish and Welsh, as likely sources of some of Tolkien's stories and characters; thus for example the Noldorin Elves resemble the Irish Tuatha Dé Danann, while the tale of Beren and Lúthien parallels that of the Welsh Culhwch and Olwen. Tolkien chose Celtic names for the isolated settlement of Bree-land, to distinguish it from the Shire with its English names.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philology and Middle-earth</span> Influence on J.R.R. Tolkiens fantasy

Philology, the study of comparative and historical linguistics, especially of the medieval period, had a major influence on J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy world of Middle-earth. He was a professional philologist, and made use of his knowledge of medieval literature and language to create families of Elvish languages and many details of the invented world.

A pseudotranslation is a text written as if it had been translated from a foreign language. J. R. R. Tolkien made use of pseudotranslation in The Lord of the Rings for two reasons: to help resolve the linguistic puzzle he had accidentally created by using real-world languages within his legendarium, and to lend realism by supporting a found manuscript conceit to frame his story.

The Etymologies is J. R. R. Tolkien's etymological dictionary of his constructed Elvish languages, written during the 1930s. As a philologist, he was professionally interested in the structure of languages, the relationships between languages, and in particular the processes by which languages evolve. He applied this skill to the construction of the languages of Middle-earth, especially the Elvish languages. The Etymologies reflects this knowledge and enthusiasm: he constantly changed the etymological relationships of his "bases", the roots of his Elvish words. The list of words covers several of his minor languages as well as the two major ones, greatly extending the vocabularies known before it was published in The Lost Road and Other Writings in 1987.

The task of constructing The Lord of the Rings was long and complex, lasting from its start in 1937, soon after the success of J. R. R. Tolkien's children's book The Hobbit, until the novel's publication in 1954–1955. Tolkien began with no idea where the story would go, and made several false starts before the tale of the One Ring emerged. The names of the characters, including the protagonists, of The Lord of the Rings changed many times. Tolkien stopped writing repeatedly, sometimes for years at a time. Inspiration, when it came, was based on practical work with maps, names, and languages that Tolkien incorporated in the novel. He illustrated places described in the text, updating drawings and text together until he felt they were correct.

References

Primary

  1. ↑ Tolkien 1983, p. 208
  2. ↑ Tolkien 1983 , pp. 206, 211
  3. 1 2 Tolkien 1954a, book 2, ch. 1 "Many Meetings"
  4. ↑ Carpenter 2023 , #144 to Naomi Mitchison , 25 April 1954

Secondary

  1. ↑ "Oxford Calling". The New York Times . 5 June 1955. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  2. ↑ Carpenter 2023 , letter 165 to Houghton Mifflin , 30 June 1955
  3. ↑ Cook, Simon J. (2016). "How to Do Things with Words: Tolkien's Theory of Fantasy in Practice". Journal of Tolkien Research . 3 (1). Article 6.
  4. 1 2 Fimi 2010, pp. 86ff.
  5. ↑ Higgins 2015, pp. 21, 39.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Shippey 2005, pp. 129–131.
  7. ↑ Honegger & Vanderbeke 2014.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Turner 2013, pp. 330–331.
  9. ↑ A similar view is voiced in Robbins, Susan (2013). "Beauty in language: Tolkien's phonology and phonaesthetics as a source of creativity and inspiration for The Lord of the Rings". Žmogus ir žodis ['Man and Word'] (1): 183–191.
  10. ↑ Barrett, Grant (14 February 2010). "On Language". The New York Times . Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  11. 1 2 Smith, Ross (2006). "Fitting Sense to Sound: Linguistic Aesthetics and Phonosemantics in the Work of J.R.R. Tolkien". Tolkien Studies . 3 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1353/tks.2006.0032. S2CID   171047658.
  12. ↑ Blasi, Damián E.; Wichmann, Søren; Hammarström, Harald; Stadler, Peter F.; Christiansen, Morten H. (27 September 2016). "Sound–meaning association biases evidenced across thousands of languages". PNAS . 113 (39): 10818–10823. Bibcode:2016PNAS..11310818B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1605782113 . PMC   5047153 . PMID   27621455.
  13. ↑ Joo, Ian (27 May 2020). "Phonosemantic biases found in Leipzig-Jakarta lists of 66 languages". Linguistic Typology . 24 (1): 1–12. doi: 10.1515/lingty-2019-0030 . hdl:21.11116/0000-0004-EBB1-B. S2CID   209962593.
  14. ↑ Erben Johansson, Niklas; Anikin, Andrey; Carling, Gerd; Holmer, Arthur (27 August 2020). "The typology of sound symbolism: Defining macro-concepts via their semantic and phonetic features". Linguistic Typology . 24 (2): 253–310. doi: 10.1515/lingty-2020-2034 . S2CID   209913202.
  15. ↑ Bremner, Andrew J.; Caparos, Serge; Davidoff, Jules; de Fockert, Jan; Linnell, Karina J.; Spence, Charles (February 2013). ""Bouba" and "Kiki" in Namibia? A remote culture make similar shape–sound matches, but different shape–taste matches to Westerners". Cognition . 126 (2): 165–172. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.09.007. PMID   23121711. S2CID   27805778.
  16. ↑ Ćwiek, Aleksandra; Fuchs, Susanne; Draxler, Christoph; Asu, Eva Liina; Dediu, Dan; Hiovain, Katri; et al. (3 January 2022). "The bouba/kiki effect is robust across cultures and writing systems". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B . 377 (1841): 20200390. doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0390. PMC   8591387 . PMID   34775818. S2CID   244103844.
  17. ↑ Popova, Svetlana; Marsymov, А. (30 March 2021). "Sound symbolism as a phonetic phenomenon and a means of artistic expression". Issues of Applied Linguistics. 41. The Business and Vocational Foreign Languages Teachers National Association: 8–26. doi: 10.25076/vpl.41.01 . ISSN   2306-1286. S2CID   233562358.
  18. ↑ Martin 2002, p. 134.
  19. 1 2 Shippey 2005, pp. 121–122.
  20. 1 2 3 Shippey 2005, p. 219.
  21. 1 2 3 Podhorodecka 2007, pp. 103–110.
  22. ↑ Robinson 2013, pp. 65–74.

Sources

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.