Tolkien's moral dilemma

Last updated

The Elf Ecthelion slays the Orc champion Orcobal in Gondolin. 2007 illustration by Tom Loback Ecthelion slays Orcobal.jpg
The Elf Ecthelion slays the Orc champion Orcobal in Gondolin.
2007 illustration by Tom Loback

J. R. R. Tolkien, a devout Roman Catholic, created what he came to feel was a dilemma for himself with his supposedly evil Middle-earth peoples like Orcs, when he made them able to speak, so they were sentient and sapient, and portrayed them talking about right and wrong. This meant, he believed, that they were open to morality, like Men. In Tolkien's Christian framework, that in turn meant they must have souls, so killing them would be wrong without very good reason. Orcs serve as the principal forces of the enemy in The Lord of the Rings , where they are slaughtered in large numbers in the battles of Helm's Deep and the Pelennor Fields in particular.

Contents

If Tolkien wanted killing Orcs not to be such a problem, then they would have to be without any moral sense, like ordinary animals. Both Tolkien and other scholars have been aware of the contradiction implied by this position: if Orcs were essentially "beasts", then they should not have had a moral sense; if they were corrupted Elves, then treating them as "other" to be slaughtered was straightforward racism. Tolkien made repeated attempts to resolve the dilemma, trying different approaches but not arriving at what he felt was a satisfactory solution.

Context

J. R. R. Tolkien was an English author and philologist of ancient Germanic languages, specialising in Old English; he spent much of his career as a professor at the University of Oxford. [1] He is best known for his novels about his invented Middle-earth, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings , and for the posthumously published The Silmarillion which provides a more mythical narrative about earlier ages. He invented several peoples for Middle-earth, including Elves, Dwarves, Hobbits, Orcs, Trolls, Ents, and Eagles. Orcs serve as the principal forces of the enemy in The Lord of the Rings , where they are slaughtered in large numbers in the battles of Helm's Deep [2] and the Pelennor Fields in particular. [3] A devout Roman Catholic, he described The Lord of the Rings as "a fundamentally religious and Catholic work", rich in Christian symbolism. [4]

Implied morality

Men and elves

In the cosmology of Tolkien's legendarium, Men live only in the world (Arda), are able to die from it, have souls, and may ultimately go to Heaven, though this is left vague in the Legendarium. [5] The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey notes that in the Middle English source, the South English Legendary from c. 1250, which he presumes Tolkien must have read, Elves appear on Earth and in the Earthly Paradise, leaving a puzzle as to whether they had souls. Since they could not leave the world, the answer was no; but given that they did not disappear completely on death, the answer had to have been yes. In The Silmarillion, Tolkien similarly has the Elves go not to Heaven but to the halfway house of the Halls of Mandos on Valinor. [6]

Anthropomorphized animals

Wargs, great wolf-like beasts, can attack independently, as they do while the Fellowship of the Ring is going south from Rivendell, [T 1] and soon after Thorin's Company emerged from the Misty Mountains. The group of Wargs in The Hobbit could speak, though never pleasantly. [T 2] The critic Gregory Hartley notes that Tolkien uses several types of anthropomorphized animals, such as the great eagles, giant spiders, Smaug the dragon, ravens and thrushes. Hartley states that the Wargs on the other hand do not rise above the level of beasts, as they do not "speak the language of humans; they do not act independently; they do not possess autonomous wills or build civilizations. He notes on the other hand that Tolkien writes about Wargs' actions using verbs like "[to] plan" and "[to] guard", implying in his view that the Wargs are monstrous, "more than mere beasts", and have no morality. [7]

Tolkien faced the question of the Great Eagles' nature with apparent hesitation. In early writings there was no need to define it precisely, since he imagined that, beside the Valar, "many lesser spirits ... both great and small" had entered Eä upon its creation; [T 3] and such sapient creatures as the Eagles or Huan the Hound, in Tolkien's own words, "have been rather lightly adopted from less 'serious' mythologies". [T 4] The phrase "spirits in the shape of hawks and eagles" in The Silmarillion derives from that stage of writing. [T 5] For some time Tolkien considered the Eagles as bird-shaped Maiar. [T 6] However, he had already said in The Lord of the Rings that Gwaihir and Landroval were descended from the Eagle Thorondor, so no supernatural origin was involved. [T 4] Tolkien had also, long before then, rejected the notion of their being "Children" of the Valar and Maiar. [T 7] In the last of his notes on this topic, dated by his son Christopher to the late 1950s, Tolkien decided that the Great Eagles were animals that had been "taught language by the Valar, and raised to a higher level—but they still had no fëar [souls]." [T 4]

Orcs

A more serious problem arose for Tolkien, especially with apparently wholly evil beings, especially Orcs, but it applies also to others such as Wargs and Trolls. Since in Catholic theology evil cannot make, only mock, Orcs cannot have an equal and opposite morality to that of Men; but since they can reason about their lives and have a moral sense (though they are unable to keep to it), they cannot be described as wholly evil. [5] [8]

Scholars have noted that Middle-earth assumes a fixed hierarchy of beings, like the medieval great chain of being. (Ramon Llull's Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind, 1305, pictured) Die Leiter des Auf- und Abstiegs.jpg
Scholars have noted that Middle-earth assumes a fixed hierarchy of beings, like the medieval great chain of being. (Ramon Llull's Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind, 1305, pictured)

All of this implies, as various scholars have commented, a hierarchy of races comparable with the medieval great chain of being, representing a range of moral complexity from Men – unquestionably sapient and subject to moral judgement – down to mere beasts, which are free of morality. In between, however, are several peoples which at least sometimes have the power of speech, but which Tolkien implies are wholly evil and without morality, raising questions about what that could mean. [10] [9] [11]

Towards a hierarchy of beings

After completing The Lord of the Rings, and realizing he had created a variety of theological problems with his races of beings, Tolkien moved toward a more carefully defined hierarchical system. [10] [12] [9] At the top were incarnates or "Children of Ilúvatar": Elves and Men, those who possessed fëar or souls, with the defining characteristic of being able to speak; [T 8] next were self-incarnates, the Valar and Maiar, "angelic" spirits that "arrayed" themselves in bodily forms of the incarnates or of animals, [T 5] [T 4] and were able to communicate both by thought and speech; [T 8] and finally animals, mere beasts, unable to speak. [T 6]

The Tolkien scholars Paul Kocher and Shippey note that in The Hobbit, the narrator provides a firm moral framework, with good elves, evil goblins (Orcs), and the other peoples like Dwarves and Eagles somewhere in between. The narrator says that the Eagles are "not kindly birds", and clearly carnivorous enough to eat a small rabbit-like Hobbit. [T 9] [13] [14] [15]

Speech and morality of Tolkien's Middle-earth peoples
PeopleAble to speak
The Hobbit 		Able to speak
Lord of the Rings 		Moral senseOriginSo, they have souls?
Men YesYesYes, leading to constant struggleCreated sapientYes, unproblematic
Orcs YesYesUnable to live up to own standardsCorrupted Elves?Yes?
Great Eagles YesYesHelpful but carnivorousDerived from beasts?No?
Wargs YesNoNone, uniformly evilDerived from beasts?No?
Trolls YesNoNone, uniformly evilDerived from beasts?No?
BeastsNoNoNoneCreated non-sapientNo, unproblematic

Dilemma

Wholly evil, or with a moral sense

The hero Tuor, a Man, slays the Orc Othrod: scholars have suggested that for Tolkien, Orcs were a conveniently wholly evil enemy that could be slaughtered without mercy. 2007 illustration by Tom Loback Tuor slays Othrod cropped.jpg
The hero Tuor, a Man, slays the Orc Othrod: scholars have suggested that for Tolkien, Orcs were a conveniently wholly evil enemy that could be slaughtered without mercy. 2007 illustration by Tom Loback

Scholars have noted that Tolkien's Orcs are depicted as wholly evil, meaning that they could be slaughtered without regret. All the same, Tolkien made them human-like both in being able to speak, and in having a similar concept of good and evil, a moral sense of fairness, even if they are totally unable to apply their morals to themselves. This presented Tolkien, as a devout Roman Catholic, with a theological problem: since "evil cannot make, only mock", the at least somewhat morally-aware Orcs could not have been created by evil as a genuinely new and separate species. Tolkien considered an alternative, that they were corrupted from one of Middle-earth's free peoples, such as Elves, which would imply that they were fully moral and possibly even had immortal souls, but found that option equally unpalatable. [17] [18] [19] Tolkien realized that some of the decisions he had made in his 1937 children's book The Hobbit, showing his goblins (Orcs) [20] as even slightly civilised, and giving his animals the power of speech, clearly implied sapience; this conflicted with the more measured theology behind his Legendarium. [7]

An Orc's view of morality

'It's my guess you won't find much in that little fellow,' said Gorbag [an Orc]. 'He may have had nothing to do with the real mischief. The big fellow with the sharp sword doesn't seem to have thought him worth much anyhow – just left him lying: regular elvish trick.'

The Two Towers, book 4, ch. 10 "The Choices of Master Samwise" [T 10]

Shippey writes that the Orcs in The Lord of the Rings were almost certainly created just to equip Middle-earth with "a continual supply of enemies over whom one need feel no compunction", [16] or in Tolkien's words from "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics", "the infantry of the old war", ready to be slaughtered. [16] Shippey states that all the same, orcs share the human concept of good and evil, with a familiar sense of morality, though he comments that, like many people, Orcs are quite unable to apply their morals to themselves. [8] He notes that in The Two Towers, Tolkien has the Orc Gorbag disapprove of the "regular elvish trick" of abandoning a comrade, as he wrongly supposes Sam has done with Frodo. Shippey describes the implied view of evil as Boethian, that evil is the absence of good; he notes, however, that Tolkien did not agree with that point of view, believing that evil had to be actively combatted, with war if necessary—the Manichean position. [21]

In a 1954 letter, Tolkien wrote that Orcs were "fundamentally a race of 'rational incarnate' creatures, though horribly corrupted, if no more so than many Men to be met today." [T 11] Zach Watkins wrote that Tolkien had "constructed the orcs to be at least potentially moral beings" [22] Robert T. Tally wrote in Mythlore that despite the uniform presentation of orcs as "loathsome, ugly, cruel, feared, and especially terminable", "Tolkien could not resist the urge to flesh out and 'humanize' these inhuman creatures from time to time", in the process giving them their own morality. [5] Stentor Danielson describes the Orcs as cutting trees "just for fun" and "out of pride in their ability to do so", noting that the character Treebeard calls the behaviour "orc-mischief". [23]

Tolkien's search for a resolution

Tolkien attempted to resolve the dilemma about his Orcs by proposing several semi-contradictory theories for their origins. In The Tale of Tinúviel , Orcs originate as "foul broodlings of Melkor who fared abroad doing his evil work". [T 12] In The Silmarillion, Orcs are East Elves (Avari) "corrupted and enslaved", tortured, and bred by Melkor "in envy and mockery of the Elves"; the Elves of the West thought them "perhaps to be Avari who had become evil and savage in the wild; in which they guessed all too near, it is said." [T 13] They bred like Elves and Men: "For the Orcs had life and multiplied after the manner of the Children of Ilúvatar". [T 13] In "The Fall of Gondolin" Morgoth made them of slime by sorcery, "bred from the heats and slimes of the earth". [T 14] Or, they were "beasts of humanized shape", possibly, Tolkien wrote, Elves mated with beasts, and later Men. [T 4] Or again, Tolkien suggested, they could have been fallen Maiar, perhaps a kind called Boldog, like lesser Balrogs; or corrupted Men. [T 15] If they were just "beasts" then they should not have had any morality of their own; but if they were fallen Elves or Maiar, then they certainly did, and valuing them as "other", to be killed without mercy, would in the opinion of Tolkien scholars like R. T. Tally be straightforward racism. [5] [24]

The origins and morality of Orcs: the Catholic Tolkien's dilemma
IssueCreated evil?Like animals?Created good, but fallen?
Origin of Orcs
according to Tolkien		"Brooded" by Morgoth [T 12] "Beasts of humanized shape" [T 4] Fallen Maiar, or corrupted Men/Elves [T 13] [T 15]
Moral implicationOrcs are wholly evil (unlike Men). [16] Orcs have no power of speech and no morality.Orcs have morality just like Men. [21] [5]
Resulting problemOrcs like Gorbag have a moral sense (even if they cannot keep to it) and can speak, which conflicts with their being wholly evil. Since evil cannot make, only mock, Orcs cannot have an equal and opposite morality to Men. [5] [8] Orcs should be treated with mercy, where possible.

Related Research Articles

Radagast the Brown is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium. A wizard and associate of Gandalf, he appears briefly in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and Unfinished Tales.

In J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth fiction, Man and Men denote humans, whether male or female, in contrast to Elves, Dwarves, Orcs, and other humanoid races. Men are described as the second or younger people, created after the Elves, and differing from them in being mortal. Along with Ents and Dwarves, these are the "free peoples" of Middle-earth, differing from the enslaved peoples such as Orcs.

A Balrog is a powerful demonic monster in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth. One first appeared in print in his high-fantasy novel The Lord of the Rings, where the Fellowship of the Ring encounter a Balrog known as Durin's Bane in the Mines of Moria. Balrogs appear also in Tolkien's The Silmarillion and his legendarium. Balrogs are tall and menacing beings who can shroud themselves in fire, darkness, and shadow. They are armed with fiery whips "of many thongs", and occasionally use long swords.

In J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, the Eagles or Great Eagles, are immense birds that are sapient and can speak. The Great Eagles resemble actual eagles, but are much larger. Thorondor is said to have been the greatest of all birds, with a wingspan of 30 fathoms. Elsewhere, the Eagles have varied in nature and size both within Tolkien's writings and in later adaptations.

The fictional races and peoples that appear in J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy world of Middle-earth include the seven listed in Appendix F of The Lord of the Rings: Elves, Men, Dwarves, Hobbits, Ents, Orcs and Trolls, as well as spirits such as the Valar and Maiar. Other beings of Middle-earth are of unclear nature such as Tom Bombadil and his wife Goldberry.

The cosmology of J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium combines aspects of Christian theology and metaphysics with pre-modern cosmological concepts in the flat Earth paradigm, along with the modern spherical Earth view of the Solar System.

The Ainur (singular: Ainu) are the immortal spirits existing before the Creation in J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional universe. These were the first beings made of the thought of Eru Ilúvatar. They were able to sing such beautiful music that the world was created from it.

The Maiar are a fictional class of beings from J. R. R. Tolkien's high fantasy legendarium. Supernatural and angelic, they are "lesser Ainur" who entered the cosmos of Eä in the beginning of time. The name Maiar is in the Quenya tongue from the Elvish root maya- "excellent, admirable".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Middle-earth</span> Continent in Tolkiens legendarium

Middle-earth is the setting of much of the English writer J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy. The term is equivalent to the Miðgarðr of Norse mythology and Middangeard in Old English works, including Beowulf. Middle-earth is the human-inhabited world, that is, the central continent of the Earth, in Tolkien's imagined mythological past. Tolkien's most widely read works, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, are set entirely in Middle-earth. "Middle-earth" has also become a short-hand term for Tolkien's legendarium, his large body of fantasy writings, and for the entirety of his fictional world.

Galadriel is a character created by J. R. R. Tolkien in his Middle-earth writings. She appears in The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and Unfinished Tales.

Morgoth Bauglir is a character, one of the godlike Valar, from Tolkien's legendarium. He is the primary antagonist of The Silmarillion, The Children of Húrin, Beren and Lúthien, and The Fall of Gondolin.

An orc, in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth fantasy fiction, is a race of humanoid monsters, which he also calls "goblin".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sauron</span> Primary antagonist in Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings

Sauron is the title character and the primary antagonist, through the forging of the One Ring, of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, where he rules the land of Mordor and has the ambition of ruling the whole of Middle-earth. In the same work, he is identified as the "Necromancer" of Tolkien's earlier novel The Hobbit. The Silmarillion describes him as the chief lieutenant of the first Dark Lord, Morgoth. Tolkien noted that the Ainur, the "angelic" powers of his constructed myth, "were capable of many degrees of error and failing", but by far the worst was "the absolute Satanic rebellion and evil of Morgoth and his satellite Sauron". Sauron appears most often as "the Eye", as if disembodied.

The Silmarils are three fictional brilliant jewels in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, made by the Elf Fëanor, capturing the unmarred light of the Two Trees of Valinor. The Silmarils play a central role in Tolkien's book The Silmarillion, which tells of the creation of Eä and the beginning of Elves, Dwarves and Men.

The Valar are characters in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium. They are "angelic powers" or "gods" subordinate to the one God. The Ainulindalë describes how some of the Ainur choose to enter the World (Arda) to complete its material development after its form is determined by the Music of the Ainur. The mightiest of these are called the Valar, or "the Powers of the World", and the others are known as the Maiar.

<i>The Silmarillion</i> Collection of J. R. R. Tolkiens mythopoeic works

The Silmarillion is a collection of myths and stories in varying styles by the English writer J. R. R. Tolkien. It was edited and published posthumously by his son Christopher Tolkien in 1977, assisted by Guy Gavriel Kay, who became a fantasy author. It tells of Eä, a fictional universe that includes the Blessed Realm of Valinor, the ill-fated region of Beleriand, the island of Númenor, and the continent of Middle-earth, where Tolkien's most popular works—The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings—are set. After the success of The Hobbit, Tolkien's publisher, Stanley Unwin, requested a sequel, and Tolkien offered a draft of the writings that would later become The Silmarillion. Unwin rejected this proposal, calling the draft obscure and "too Celtic", so Tolkien began working on a new story that eventually became The Lord of the Rings.

The geography of Middle-earth encompasses the physical, political, and moral geography of J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional world of Middle-earth, strictly a continent on the planet of Arda but widely taken to mean the physical world, and Eä, all of creation, as well as all of his writings about it. Arda was created as a flat world, incorporating a Western continent, Aman, which became the home of the godlike Valar, as well as Middle-earth. At the end of the First Age, the Western part of Middle-earth, Beleriand, was drowned in the War of Wrath. In the Second Age, a large island, Númenor, was created in the Great Sea, Belegaer, between Aman and Middle-earth; it was destroyed in a cataclysm near the end of the Second Age, in which Arda was remade as a spherical world, and Aman was removed so that Men could not reach it.

Tolkien's monsters are the evil beings, such as Orcs, Trolls, and giant spiders, who oppose and sometimes fight the protagonists in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. Tolkien was an expert on Old English, especially Beowulf, and several of his monsters share aspects of the Beowulf monsters; his Trolls have been likened to Grendel, the Orcs' name harks back to the poem's orcneas, and the dragon Smaug has multiple attributes of the Beowulf dragon. The European medieval tradition of monsters makes them either humanoid but distorted, or like wild beasts, but very large and malevolent; Tolkien follows both traditions, with monsters like Orcs of the first kind and Wargs of the second. Some scholars add Tolkien's immensely powerful Dark Lords Morgoth and Sauron to the list, as monstrous enemies in spirit as well as in body. Scholars have noted that the monsters' evil nature reflects Tolkien's Roman Catholicism, a religion which has a clear conception of good and evil.

In Tolkien's legendarium, ancestry provides a guide to character. The apparently genteel Hobbits of the Baggins family turn out to be worthy protagonists of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Bilbo Baggins is seen from his family tree to be both a Baggins and an adventurous Took. Similarly, Frodo Baggins has some relatively outlandish Brandybuck blood. Among the Elves of Middle-earth, as described in The Silmarillion, the highest are the peaceful Vanyar, whose ancestors conformed most closely to the divine will, migrating to Aman and seeing the light of the Two Trees of Valinor; the lowest are the mutable Teleri; and in between are the conflicted Noldor. Scholars have analysed the impact of ancestry on Elves such as the creative but headstrong Fëanor, who makes the Silmarils. Among Men, Aragorn, hero of The Lord of the Rings, is shown by his descent from Kings, Elves, and an immortal Maia to be of royal blood, destined to be the true King who will restore his people. Scholars have commented that in this way, Tolkien was presenting a view of character from Norse mythology, and an Anglo-Saxon view of kingship, though others have called his implied views racist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tolkien and the Norse</span> Theme in Tolkiens Middle-earth writings

Tolkien derived the characters, stories, places, and languages of Middle-earth from many sources. Among these are Norse mythology, seen in his Dwarves, Wargs, Trolls, Beorn and the barrow-wight, places such as Mirkwood, characters including the Wizards Gandalf and Saruman and the Dark Lords Morgoth and Sauron derived from the Norse god Odin, magical artefacts like the One Ring and Aragorn's sword Andúril, and the quality that Tolkien called "Northern courage". The powerful Valar, too, somewhat resemble the pantheon of Norse gods, the Æsir.

References

Primary

  1. ↑ Tolkien 1954a , book 2, ch. 4 "A Journey in the Dark"
  2. ↑ Tolkien 1937 , ch. 6 "Out of the Frying-pan into the Fire"
  3. ↑ Tolkien 1987, "Quenta Silmarillion", §2
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tolkien 1993, "Myths Transformed", VIII
  5. 1 2 Tolkien 1987, "Ainulindalë"
  6. 1 2 Tolkien 1993, "The Annals of Aman"
  7. ↑ Tolkien 1993, "The Annals of Aman"; "The Later Quenta Silmarillion", ch. 1
  8. 1 2 Tolkien 1994, "Quendi and Eldar"
  9. ↑ Tolkien 1937, "Out of the Frying-Pan and into the Fire"
  10. ↑ Tolkien 1954, book 4, ch. 10 "The Choices of Master Samwise"
  11. ↑ Carpenter 2023 , letter 153 to Peter Hastings, draft, September 1954
  12. 1 2 Tolkien 1984b , "The Tale of Tinúviel"
  13. 1 2 3 Tolkien 1977 ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves"; ch. 10 "Of the Sindar"
  14. ↑ Tolkien 1984b "The Fall of Gondolin"
  15. 1 2 Tolkien 1993 , "Myths transformed", X

Secondary

  1. ↑ Carpenter 1977, pp. 111, 200, 266.
  2. ↑ Tolkien 1954, book 3, ch. 7 "Helm's Deep".
  3. ↑ Tolkien 1955, book 5, ch. 6 "The Battle of the Pelennor Fields".
  4. ↑ Carpenter 2023 , Letter 142 to Robert Murray, 2 December 1953
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tally, Robert T. Jr. (2010). "Let Us Now Praise Famous Orcs: Simple Humanity in Tolkien's Inhuman Creatures". Mythlore . 29 (1). article 3.
  6. ↑ Shippey 2005, pp. 270–273.
  7. 1 2 Hartley 2014.
  8. 1 2 3 Shippey 2005, pp. 362, 438 (chapter 5, note 14).
  9. 1 2 3 Tally, R. T. Jr (2022). "More Dangerous and Less Wise: Race, Class, and the Geopolitical Order". J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit. Palgrave Science Fiction and Fantasy: A New Canon. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 65–84. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-11266-9_5. ISBN   978-3031112669.
  10. 1 2 Chandler, Wayne A.; Fry, Carrol L. (2017). "Tolkien's Allusive Backstory: Immortality and Belief in the Fantasy Frame". Mythlore . 35 (2). article 7.
  11. ↑ Tally, Robert (12 March 2019). "Demonizing the Enemy, Literally: Tolkien, Orcs, and the Sense of the World Wars". Humanities. 8 (1): 54. doi: 10.3390/h8010054 . ISSN   2076-0787. Whatever else orcs may be, they are most assuredly sentient;
  12. ↑ Stuart, Robert (2022). "Tolkien, Race, and the Critics: Debating Racism in Middle-earth". Tolkien, Race, and Racism in Middle-earth. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 46. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-97475-6. ISBN   978-3-030-97475-6. OCLC   1312274691. S2CID   248207455.
  13. ↑ Kocher 1974, p. 12.
  14. ↑ Shippey 2005, pp. 84, 91.
  15. ↑ Burns 2005, p. 161.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Shippey 2005, p. 265.
  17. ↑ Shippey 2005, pp. 265, 362, 438.
  18. ↑ Bergen, Richard Angelo (2017). "'A Warp of Horror': J.R.R. Tolkien's Sub-creations of Evil". Mythlore . 36 (1). Article 7.
  19. ↑ Fawcett, Christina (2014). J.R.R. Tolkien and the morality of monstrosity (PhD). University of Glasgow (PhD thesis). pp. 29, 97, 125–131.
  20. ↑ Evans 2013, pp. 433–434.
  21. 1 2 Shippey 2001, pp. 131–133.
  22. ↑ Watkins, Zach (2007). "The Morality of Orcs". The Grey Book (3): 1–3.
  23. ↑ Danielson 2021.
  24. ↑ Fimi, Dimitra (6 December 2018). "Was Tolkien really racist?". The Conversation. Retrieved 20 January 2021.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.