Åland is situated in a Finnish archipelago, called the Åland Islands, at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea. It comprises Fasta Åland, on which 90% of the population resides,[9] and about 6,500 skerries and islands to its east,[10] of which about 60–80 are inhabited. Fasta Åland is separated from the coast of Roslagen in Sweden by 38 kilometres (20+1⁄2 nautical miles) of open water to the west. In the east, the Åland archipelago is contiguous with the Finnish archipelago. Åland's only land border is located on the uninhabited skerry of Märket, which it shares with Sweden.[11] From Mariehamn, there is a ferry distance of about 160 kilometres (86 nautical miles) to Turku, a coastal city of mainland Finland, and also to Stockholm, the capital of Sweden.
Åland's autonomous status means that those provincial powers normally exercised by representatives of the central Finnish Government are largely exercised by its own government. The current demilitarised, neutral position of Åland dates back to the Paris Peace Treaty after the Åland War in the 1850s.[12]
The autonomous status of Åland was affirmed by a decision made by the League of Nations in 1921 following the Åland Islands dispute. It was reaffirmed within the treaty admitting Finland to the European Union. By law, Åland is politically neutral and entirely demilitarised, and residents are exempt from conscription to the Finnish Defence Forces. Åland was granted extensive autonomy by the Parliament of Finland in the Act on the Autonomy of Åland of 1920, which was later replaced by new legislation of the same name in 1951 and 1991. The constitution of Finland defines a "constitution of Åland" by referring to this act. Åland remains exclusively Swedish-speaking by this act.[13] Although a referendum to join the European Union had been held in mainland Finland on 16 October 1994, Åland held a separate vote on 20 November as they were a separate customs jurisdiction. EU membership was approved by 73.64% of voters.[14] In connection with Finland's admission to the European Union, a protocol was signed concerning Åland that stipulates, among other things, that provisions of the European Community Treaty shall not force a change of the existing restrictions for foreigners (i.e., persons who do not enjoy "home region rights"—hembygdsrätt—in Åland) to acquire and hold real property or to provide certain services.[15]
Etymology
Åland's original name was in the Proto-Norse language*Ahvaland. Proto-Germanicahwō is related to the Latin word for water, aqua. In Swedish, this first developed into Áland and eventually into Åland, literally 'river land'—even though rivers are not a prominent feature of Åland's geography. The Finnish and Estonian names of the area, Ahvenanmaa and Ahvenamaa ("perch-land", from Finnish ahven, for the type of fish), are seen to preserve another form of the old name.[16]
The Finnish word Ahvenanmaa has several theories in regards to the Åland name, with them varying from it being a Finnish variant of the Swedish Åland, it being the original name that Åland derived from, and it having formed independently.[17]
The official name, Landskapet Åland, means "the Region of Åland"; landskap is cognate to English landscape.
Swedish Map of Åland from before 1667 with shipping lanes, harbours, churches and various boundaries marked
Members of the NeolithicComb Ceramic culture started settling the archipelago some 7000 years ago, after the islands had begun to re-emerge from the sea after being pushed down by the weight of the continental ice of the latest ice-age. Two Neolithic cultures met on Åland: the Comb Ceramic culture and the later Pit-Comb Ware culture which spread from the west.[18]
Stone Age and Bronze Age people obtained food by hunting seals and birds, fishing, and gathering plants. They also started agriculture early on. From the Iron Age, Åland has six hillforts. From the Viking age there are over 380 documented burial sites.[18]
The coat of arms of Åland was originally to be granted to the Swedish island province of Öland in 1560; the two had been mixed up by mistake. It displays a golden red deer (which does not live in Åland) on a blue field.[19] This is traditionally surmounted by a comitalcoronet of the elder Swedish style.[20]
Along with Finland, Åland formed part of the territory ceded to Russia by Sweden under the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in September 1809. As a result, they became part of the newly established Grand Duchy of Finland that existed until 1917. During negotiations, Sweden failed to secure a provision that the islands not be fortified.
In 1832, Russian Empire started to fortify the islands, with the great fortress of Bomarsund. In 1854, as part of the campaign in the Baltic during the Crimean War against Russia, a combined British and French force of warships and marines captured and destroyed the fortress during the Åland War. The 1856 Treaty of Paris demilitarised the entire Åland archipelago.[12]
Swedish artillerymen in Haraldsby during the Invasion of Åland in 1918.
Åland (blue) with historical and modern (yellow lines) provinces of the rest of Finland (gray) juxtaposed.
After 1917, the residents of Åland worked towards having them ceded to Sweden. In 1919 96.4% of the voters in Åland signed a petition for secession from Finland and for integration with Sweden, with over 95% in favour.[22] Swedish nationalist sentiments had strengthened particularly as a result of the anti-Swedish tendencies in Finland and as a result of Finnish nationalism fueled by Finland's struggle to retain its position as an autonomous grand duchy due to beginning of country's active Russification.[23] The conflict between the Swedish-speaking minority and the Finnish-speaking majority on the Finnish mainland, prominent in Finnish politics since the 1840s, contributed to the apprehension of the Åland population about a future within Finland.
Finland, however, declined to cede the islands and instead offered the islanders an autonomous status. Nevertheless, the residents did not approve the offer, and in 1921 the dispute over the islands went before the newly formed League of Nations. The latter decided that Finland should retain sovereignty over the province, but that Åland should be made an autonomous territory.[24] One of the important proponents of a diplomatic solution to the case was Nitobe Inazō, who was one of the Under-Secretaries General of the League and the director of the International Bureaux Section, in charge of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation.[25] The Åland convention of 20 October 1921, signed by Sweden, Finland, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Denmark, Poland, Estonia, and Latvia, was the first international agreement achieved by the League.[26] Thus, Finland was obliged to ensure the residents of Åland the right to maintain the Swedish language, as well as their own culture and local traditions. The convention of 1921 established the neutral status of Åland by international treaty, prohibiting the placing of military installations or forces on the islands.[27] Åland's Regional Assembly convened for its first plenary session in Mariehamn on 9 June 1922;[2] today, the day is celebrated as Self-Government Day of Åland.[3]
Åland Islands status shown in public signage, Mariehamn
Because of the condition of neutrality under the 1921 Convention, the islanders enjoyed safety at sea during World War II, as their merchant fleet sailed both for the Allied countries and for Nazi Germany. Consequently, Åland shipping was not generally attacked, as the various military forces rarely knew which cargo was being carried or to whom.
Finland marked the 150th anniversary of the demilitarisation of Åland by issuing a high-value commemorative coin, the €5 150th Anniversary of Demilitarisation of Åland commemorative coin, minted in 2006. The obverse depicts a pine tree, a typical feature of Åland. The reverse features a boat's stern and rudder, with a dove perched on the tiller, a symbol of 150 years of peace.
Åland is governed according to the Act on the Autonomy of Åland and international treaties. These laws guarantee the region's autonomy from Finland, which has ultimate sovereignty over them, as well as a demilitarised status. The Government of Åland, or Landskapsregering, answers to the Parliament of Åland, or Lagting, in accordance with the principles of parliamentarism.[13]
Åland has its own flag and has issued its own postage stamps since 1984.[28] It runs its own police force, and is an associate member of the Nordic Council.[29] Åland is demilitarised, and the population is exempt from conscription. Although Åland's autonomy preceded the creation of the regions of Finland, the autonomous government of Åland also has responsibility for the functions undertaken by Finland's regional councils. Åland Post provides postal services to the islands, and is a member of the Small European Postal Administration Cooperation. Åland is considered a separate entity for amateur radio purposes and have their own call signprefixes granted by Finland: OH0, OF0 and OG0 (last character is zero).[30]
Homeschooling, which has been effectively banned in Sweden since 2011, is allowed by the Finnish government. Due to the islands' proximity to Sweden and because they are Swedish-speaking, a number of Swedish homeschooling families have moved from the Swedish mainland to Åland, including Jonas Himmelstrand, the chairman of the Swedish association for homeschooling.[31]
After a reform of the electoral law, Åland was to introduce internet voting in 2019 for expat voters in the parliamentary elections, considering opening the use of the same system for the next elections (2023) to all the voters.[32] However, its use was cancelled at the last minute due to a lack of evidence of the trustability of the system.[33]
Åland held its own referendum on membership of the European Union on 20 November 1994. A majority of Ålanders voted in favour of membership, and it followed Finland into the Union in 1995. A special Åland protocol regulates Åland's position within the EU. It has some important exceptions, concerning the right of non-Ålanders to own real estate and the right of non-Ålandic companies to establish themselves in the region, and concerning EU tax legislation. The last item's derogation means that Åland is considered a third country for tax purposes, which has had the most important effect of allowing the profitable sale of tax-exempt goods on ferries to and from Sweden and Finland to continue.
Administration
An Åland licence plate
The State Department of Åland represents the Finnish central government and performs many administrative duties. It has a somewhat different function from the other Regional Administrative Agencies, owing to its autonomy. Before 2010, the state administration was handled by the Åland State Provincial Office.
Åland has its own postal administration but still uses the Finnish five-digit postal code system, using the number range 22000–22999, with the prefix AX. The lowest numbered postal code is for the capital Mariehamn, AX 22100, and the highest AX 22950 for Jurmo.
Geographical features and municipalities of ÅlandPeople hiking in Åland
Åland occupies a position of strategic importance, as it commands one of the entrances to the port of Stockholm, as well as the approaches to the Gulf of Bothnia, in addition to being situated near the Gulf of Finland.
The Åland archipelago includes nearly three hundred habitable islands, of which about 60–80 are inhabited; the remainder are merely some 6,200 skerries and desolate rocks.[10] The archipelago is connected to the Åboland archipelago in the east (Finnish: Turunmaan saaristo, Swedish: Åbolands skärgård)—the archipelago adjacent to the southwest coast of Finland. Together they form the Archipelago Sea. To the west of Åland is the Sea of Åland and to the north is the Bothnian Sea.
The surface of the islands is generally rocky and the soil thin due to glacial stripping at the end of the most recent ice age.[10] The islands also contain many meadows that are home to many different kinds of insects, such as the Glanville fritillary butterfly.
Åland's landmass occupies a total area of 1,527 square kilometres (589+1⁄2sqmi).[39] Ninety percent of the population live on Fasta Åland, which is also the site of the capital town of Mariehamn. Fasta Åland is the largest island in the archipelago. Its area is difficult to estimate due to its irregular shape and coastline, but estimates range from 740 square kilometres[10] to 879 square kilometres[40] to over 1,010 square kilometres, depending on what is included or excluded. There are several harbours.
Sheep grazing on a small island
During the Åland Islands dispute, the parties sought support from different maps of the area. On the Swedish map, the most densely populated main island dominated, and many skerries were left out. On the Finnish map, many smaller islands or skerries were, for technical reasons, given a slightly exaggerated size. The Swedish map made the islands appear to be closer to the mainland of Sweden than to Finland; the Finnish map stressed the continuity of the archipelago between the main island and mainland Finland, while a greater gap appeared between the islands and the archipelago on the Swedish side. One consequence is the often repeated number of "over 6,000" skerries that was given authority by the outcome of the arbitration.[citation needed]
Many animals that live in the islands are not native. Animals such as elk and other species of deer were introduced in the 20th century.
Climate
Åland has a humid continental climate (Dfb) that is influenced by its maritime position, especially in summer. While summers are cooler than on both the Swedish and Finnish mainland, winters see little difference to the adjacent parts of Sweden and are only narrowly milder than in mainland Finland.
Climate data for Mariehamn Airport (normals 1991–2020, extremes 1914–present)
Åland's economy is heavily dominated by shipping, trade and tourism. Shipping represents about 40% of the economy, with several international carriers owned and operated from Åland. Most companies aside from shipping are small, with fewer than ten employees. Farming and fishing are important in combination with the food industry. A few high-profile technology companies contribute to a prosperous economy. Wind power is rapidly developing, aiming at reversing the direction in the cables to the mainland in coming years. In December 2011, wind power accounted for 31.5% of Åland's total electricity usage.[citation needed]
Mariehamn served as the base for the last large oceanic commercial sailing-ships in the world. Their final tasks involved bringing Australian wheat to Great Britain, a trade which Åland shipowner Gustaf Erikson kept going until 1947. The ships latterly made only one round-trip from South Australia to Britain per year, (the grain race), after each marathon voyage going back to Mariehamn to lay up for a few months. The ship Pommern, now a museum in Mariehamn, was one of these last vessels.
The abolition of tax-free sales on ferry boats travelling between destinations within the European Union made Finland demand an exception for Åland on the European Union value-added tax rules. The exception allows for maintained tax-free sales on the ferries between Sweden and Finland (provided they stop at Mariehamn or Långnäs) and at the airport, but has also made Åland a different tax-zone, meaning that tariffs must be levied on goods brought to the islands. Two million people visit Åland every year – but most of them just for a few hours before the ferry returns again, or the passengers change from one ship to another.[44]
Unemployment was 3.9% in January 2014;[45] the employment rate was 79.8% in 2011 and 84.2% in 2021.[46]
The Finnish State also collects taxes, duties and fees in Åland. In return, the Finnish Government places a sum of money at the disposal of the Åland Parliament. The sum is 0.5% of total Government income, excluding Government loans. If the sum paid to the Finnish state exceeds 0.5%, then any amount above goes back to the Parliament of Åland as "diligence money".[47] In 2010 the amount of taxes paid by Åland Islanders comprised 0.7% of the total taxes paid in Finland.[48]
The euro is the sole legal tender (as with the rest of Finland), although most businesses in Åland unofficially accept the Swedish krona.[49] According to Eurostat, as of 2006[update] Åland was the 20th-wealthiest of the EU's 268 regions, and the wealthiest in Finland, with a GDP per inhabitant 47% above the EU mean.[50][51]
Bank of Åland is headquartered on the island, and the government of Åland owns Paf, a gambling operator with headquarters in Mariehamn.
The COVID-19 pandemic caused a sharper decrease in the total volume of the economy of Åland than for neighbouring Sweden or Finland. Since the pandemic, the economy of Åland has been on a trajectory of recovery.[52]
Most inhabitants speak Swedish (the sole official language) as their first language: 86% in 2021, while less than 5% spoke Finnish. The language of instruction in publicly financed schools is Swedish. (In the rest of Finland, bilingual municipalities provide schooling both in Finnish and in Swedish.) For information about the dialect, see Åland Swedish.
Regional citizenship or the right of domicile (hembygdsrätt) is a prerequisite for voting, standing as a candidate for the Legislative Assembly, or owning and holding real estate situated in unplanned areas of Åland.[13]
17.3% of Ålanders have a foreign-background, which is the highest proportion of any region in Finland. Most of them are from Sweden, with 7% of Ålanders having a Swedish-background. There are also sizable Romanian and Latvian communities.[53]
Residents by country of origin (2021)
Country
Population
Total residents
30,344
Finland
25,099
Foreign-background
5,245
Sweden
2,135
Romania
557
Latvia
477
Estonia
211
Thailand
169
Russia
146
Germany
126
Former Yugoslavia
114
Iran
104
Philippines
98
Poland
83
United Kingdom
71
Ukraine
65
Syria
55
Morocco
54
Lithuania
43
Norway
43
United States
38
Brazil
35
Vietnam
35
Other
586
Structure of the population
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021) (Population statistics are compiled from registers.):[54]
In 2010, there were 22 primary schools in Åland. Eight of them covered both upper and lower secondary schools, two were upper secondary schools and 12 were primary schools (grades 1–6).[55] There exists two places of post-primary studies on the islands: the traditional high school of Ålands lyceum[sv] or the Åland vocational high school, which offers a double degree in high school and vocational studies. Of these, Ålands lyceum is a relatively large high school; according to the 2018 statistics of the education administration, as many as 432 high school students studied there.[56] The schools on Åland also include Ålands folkhögskola[sv] and other several primary and secondary schools.[57]Åland University of Applied Sciences teaches about 600 students[58] in maritime, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, IT, finance, hotels, restaurants and health care.[59] The maritime education of Åland are all part of Alandica Shipping Academy.[60]
The education in Åland is similar to that of Finland and the Nordics, and the language of education on Åland is officially Swedish. Finnish language has been a compulsory subject in upper secondary school, but optional in primary school; however, 80 per cent of students have chosen it. In 2006, it was proposed to remove the compulsory Finnish language from upper secondary schools.[61]
The coat of arms of Åland features a golden red deer on a blue field. This is traditionally surmounted by a comitalcoronet of the elder Swedish style.[20] The arms borne today by Åland were originally by mistake granted to the island province of Öland in 1560, displaying a golden red deer on a blue field.[19]
Sederholm, J. J. - On Migmatites and Associated Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Southwestern Finland, Part III: The Aland Islands.[74]
Related Research Articles
The history of Åland can be traced back to roughly 4000 BCE, when humans first reached the archipelago in the Neolithic period. Several Bronze Age villages have been found on Åland. During the Viking Age, six hillforts were built. Sweden controlled the Åland Islands from the 1200s until 1809, during which, Kastelholm Castle was the focal point of many battles. In 1809, the Russian empire took Åland and Finland. In 1854, British and French forces attacked Bomarsund. The Åland Islands were then demilitarised until 1906. In 1918, Swedish and German forces occupied the Åland Islands. After the Finnish Civil War, Åland joined Finland following the Åland Convention of 1921.
Mariehamn is the capital of Åland, an autonomous territory under Finnish sovereignty. Mariehamn is the seat of the Government and Parliament of Åland, and 40% of the population of Åland live in the city. It is mostly surrounded by Jomala, the second largest municipality in Åland in terms of population; to the east it is bordered by Lemland. Like all of Åland, Mariehamn is unilingually Swedish-speaking and around 82% of the inhabitants speak it as their native language.
"Ålänningens sång" is the official anthem of Åland, an autonomous Swedish-speaking province of Finland. Adopted in 1922, the anthem's words are by John Grandell, and the music was composed by Johan Fridolf Hagfors. The song was first performed during the song festival in Mariehamn 1922. In Åland, the song is mostly sung on Midsummer's Eve and on the national day of Åland on 9 June. The song originally had four verses, but the third verse has been omitted for a long time when the song is sung and often when it appears in print.
Mainland Finland is a term used in statistics and in other contexts to describe the continental parts of Finland, an area which excludes Åland. In legal contexts, the relation between the mainland and Åland is depicted by the word pair the State–Åland.
The Åland Islands dispute was one of the issues put up for arbitration by the League of Nations on its formation. Åland's population's demand for self-determination was not met and sovereignty over the islands was retained by Finland, but international guarantees were given to allow the population to pursue its own culture, relieving the threat of forced assimilation by Finnish culture as perceived by the islanders.
Jomala is a municipality of Åland, an autonomous territory of Finland. In terms of population, it is the next largest after Mariehamn, the capital of Åland.
The flag of Åland is a yellow or gold Nordic cross with another red cross inside on a blue background with the vertical bar shifted towards the hoist side. It is intended to resemble the Swedish flag defaced by a red cross symbolizing Finland. The flag was officially adopted as the flag of Åland in 1954 and first hoisted in Mariehamn on 3 April 1954. Prior to autonomy, an unofficial horizontal bicolour triband of blue-yellow-blue was in use until it was made illegal in 1935.
The Archipelago Sea is a part of the Baltic Sea between the Gulf of Bothnia, the Gulf of Finland and the Sea of Åland, within Finnish territorial waters. By some definitions it contains the largest archipelago in the world by the number of islands, although many of the islands are very small and tightly clustered.
IFK Mariehamn is a Finnish football club based in Mariehamn, the capital of the Åland Islands. It plays in the Finnish Premier Division (Veikkausliiga), winning their first title in 2016. The club is managed by Bruno Romão, and it plays its home matches at Wiklöf Holding Arena.
Henrik Daniel "Daja" Sjölund is a Finnish football coach and a former footballer who played as a midfielder. Sjölund is currently working as an assistant coach of Veikkausliiga club IFK Mariehamn. He is best remembered for his stints with Djurgårdens IF and IFK Norrköping. He won 37 caps for the Finland national team.
The Åland archipelago consists of several thousands of islands, skerries and desolate rocks. About 60-80 islands are inhabited. In the east, the archipelago is connected to Turku archipelago — the archipelago adjacent to the southwest coast of Finland.
Fasta Åland is the largest and most populous island of Åland, an autonomous province of Finland. The island is home to the provincial capital Mariehamn. About ninety percent of the archipelago's population lives on Fasta Åland. Its area is difficult to estimate due to its irregular shape and coastline, but estimates range from 740 square kilometres (290 sq mi) to 879 square kilometres (339 sq mi) to over 1,010 square kilometres (390 sq mi), depending on what is included or excluded. Even at the minimum estimate, Fasta Åland is Finland's largest and most populous island, with about 27,000 people. Its highest point is 129 metres.
Law enforcement in Åland is the responsibility of the Police Authority of the Åland Islands, a unit independent of the mainland Finnish National Police, which answers to the Åland unit of the National Bureau of Investigation, part of the Government of Åland.
Åland is an archipelago of over 6,000 islands in the Baltic Sea. Constitutionally, it is a Swedish-speaking autonomous province of Finland. Sea travel is a vital part of Åland's economy and a major local employer. The main ports are located at the capital Mariehamn in the south, at Berghamn in the west and at Långnäs on the east shore of Fasta Åland.
The Åland Islands Peace Institute in Mariehamn, Finland, conducts projects and research into peace and conflict issues in a broadly defined sense from the vantage-point of Åland and the special status that Åland enjoys under international law. It focuses on autonomy in various forms, -minority-related issues, demilitarisation and conflict management. The Institute was founded in 1992 as an independent charitable foundation.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the Åland Islands:
Kimitoön is a municipality and island of Finland. It was created on 1 January 2009, when the municipalities of Dragsfjärd, Kimito and Västanfjärd were consolidated into a single municipality.
The Invasion of Åland was a 1918 military campaign of World War I in Åland, Finland. The islands, still hosting Soviet Russian troops, were first invaded by Sweden in late February and then by the German Empire in early March. The conflict was also related to the Finnish Civil War including minor fighting between the Finnish Whites and the Finnish Reds.
The Western Harbour is one of two harbours in the port of Mariehamn, the regional capital of Åland, in the Archipelago Sea part of the Baltic.
Barbro Carol Sundback is an Ålandic psychologist, politician and former member of the Parliament of Åland, the regional legislature of Åland, an autonomous region of Finland. A social democrat, she was a member of the legislature from November 1979 to October 2015. She was also First Deputy Speaker from November 2003 and October 2005 and Speaker from November 2005 and October 2007.
References
1 2 Hurst Hannum (1993). "Agreement between Sweden and Finland Relating to Guarantees in the Law of 7 May 1920 on the Autonomy of the Aaland Islands". Basic Documents on Autonomy and Minority Rights. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p.141. ISBN0-7923-1977-X. Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2015.
↑ "The Aland Islands". Osterholm.info. 9 May 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
1 2 3 4 Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). Natural Wonders of the World. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p.3. ISBN0-89577-087-3.
↑ An account of the border on Märket and how it was redrawn in 1985 appears in Hidden Europe Magazine, 11 (November 2006) pp. 26–29, ISSN1860-6318
↑ "Åland in the European Union". Europe Information. Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. 2013. p.7. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
↑ Virrankoski, Pentti (2001). Suomen historia. Ensimmäinen osa. SKS. ISBN951-746-321-9. p. 59.
↑ Lars Hulden (2001) Finlandssvenska bebyggelsenamn; Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland. ISBN951-583-071-0.
↑ Harjula, Mirko (2010). Itämeri 1914–1921: Itämeren laivastot maailmansodassa sekä Venäjän vallankumouksissa ja sisällissodassa (in Finnish). Helsinki: Books on Demand. ISBN978-952-49838-3-9.
↑ Margery Post Abbott, Mary Ellen Chijioke, Pink Dandelion & John William Oliver: Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers), p. 246. Scarecrow Press, 2011. ISBN0810868571.
↑ F. S. Northedge, The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, 1920–1946 (Holmes & Meier, 1986, ISBN978-0-7185-1316-0), pp 77, 78
↑ Elgán, Elisabeth (2015). Historical Dictionary of Sweden. Rowman & Littlefield. p.26. ISBN9781442250710.
↑ Symington, Andy; Bain, Carolyn; Bonetto, Cristian; Ham, Anthony & Kaminski, Anna (2013), Scandinavia, Lonely Planet
↑ "Europe's Regions"(PDF). 20 August 2012. Archived from the original on 20 August 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
↑ "Lukiokoulutuksen oppilaat". vipunen.fi (in Finnish). Opetushallinnon tilastopalvelu Vipunen. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2020.
↑ Coleman, Alice (December 1964). "Review". The Geographical Journal. 130 (4). Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers): 571–572. doi:10.2307/1792320. JSTOR1792320.
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