Background
Charles Fernand Rey's 1927 book In the Country of the Blue Nile included a 13-page appendix with a list of Ethiopian monarchs written by the Prince Regent Tafari Makonnen, who later became the Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930. [6] Tafari's list begins in 4530 BC and ends in 1779 AD, with dates following the Ethiopian Calendar, which is several years behind the Gregorian calendar. [7] Tafari's cover letter was written in the town of Addis Ababa on the 11th day of Sane, 1914 (Ethiopian Calendar), which was June 19, 1922 on the Gregorian Calendar according to Rey. [5]
Rey revealed in another book he wrote, Unconquered Abyssinia, that this list was given to him in 1924 by a court historian who was a "learned old gentleman". [8] This court historian had "caused to be compiled [...] on the instructions of Ras Tafari" a complete list of "rulers of Abyssinia from the beginning of time up to date." [8] Rey noted that the list contained many names "of Egyptian origin", which was a "good illustration" of the difficulties in researching the history of Abyssinia. [8] The court historian claimed that the regnal list had already been compiled prior to the "advent of the Ethiopian dynasty in Egypt" and that the original version had been taken to Egypt and left there, afterwards becoming lost. [4]
Prince Ermias Sahle Selassie, president of the Crown Council of Ethiopia, acknowledged the regnal list in a speech given in 2011 in which he stated:
Ethiopian tradition traces the origins of the dynasty to a king called Ori, who lived about 4470 BC [ sic ]. While the reality of such a vastly remote provenance must be considered in semi-mythic terms, it remains certain that Ethiopia, also known as the Kingdom of Kush, was already ancient by the time of David and Solomon's rule in Jerusalem. [9]
The goal of the 1922 regnal list was to showcase the immense longevity of the Ethiopian monarchy. The list does this by providing precise dates over 6,300 years and drawing upon various historical traditions from both within Ethiopia and outside of Ethiopia.
The regnal list names 313 numbered monarchs (Abreha and Atsbeha were mistakenly counted as one monarch on Tafari's version of the list). These rulers are divided into eight dynasties:
- Tribe of Ori or Aram (4530–3244 BC) (21 monarchs)
- Tribe of Kam (2713–1985 BC) (24 monarchs)
- Ag'azyan dynasty of the kingdom of Joctan (1985–982 BC) (52 monarchs) – mistitled "Agdazyan" on Tafari's list. [10]
- Dynasty of Menelik I (982 BC–493 AD) (133 monarchs)
- Monarchs who reigned before the birth of Christ (982 BC–9 AD)
- Monarchs who reigned after the birth of Christ (9–306)
- Christian Sovereigns (306–493)
- Dynasty of Kaleb until Gedajan (493–920) (27 monarchs) – Usually treated as a continuation of the Menelik dynasty on earlier regnal lists.
- Zagwe dynasty (920–1253) (11 monarchs)
- Solomonic dynasty (1253–1555) (26 monarchs) and its Gondarian branch (1555–1779) (18 monarchs)
In addition to the above, there is a so-called "Israelitish" dynasty with eight unnumbered kings from the time of Zagwe rule who did not ascend to the throne of Ethiopia. These kings were descendants of the dynasty of Menelik. [11]
The first three dynasties are mostly legendary and take various elements from the Bible, as well as Ancient Egyptian, Nubian, Greek, Coptic and Arab sources. Many of the monarchs of the Menelik and Kaleb dynasties appear on Ethiopian regnal lists written before 1922, but these lists often contradict each other and many of the kings themselves are not archeologically verified, though in some cases their existence is confirmed by Aksumite coinage. Many of the historically verified rulers of the Ag'azyan and Menelik dynasties did not rule over the region of modern Ethiopia but rather over Egypt and/or Nubia. It is only from the dynasty of Kaleb onward that the monarchs are certainly Aksumite or "Abyssinian" in origin. The Zagwe and Solomonic dynasties are both historically verified, though only the Solomonic line has a secure historical dating of 1270 to 1975, which at times contradicts the reign dates found on this regnal list.
Each monarch on the list has their respective reign dates and number of years listed. Two columns of reign dates were used in the list. One column uses dates according to the Ethiopian calendar from 4530 BC to 1779 AD, while the other column lists the "Year of the World", placing the creation of the world in 5500 BC. Other Ethiopian texts and documents have also placed a similar date for the creation of the world. [12] [13] The dating of 5500 BC as the creation of the world on this list was influenced by calculations from the Alexandrian and Byzantine eras which placed the world's creation in 5493 BC and 5509 BC respectively. [14]
The use of Biblical figures in royal lineage has been found in other fictitious histories, such as the Swedish Historia de omnibus Gothorum Sueonumque regibus , written in the 16th century.
Authorship
Neither Tafari Makonnen nor Charles Rey explicitly stated who wrote the regnal list originally or who supplied Tafari with a copy of it. Both Heruy Wolde Selassie and Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam included versions of the list in their work, however there is clear evidence that a large part of the list's early sections is lifted from the work of an obscure French historian named Louis J. Morié.
Heruy Wolde Selassie and Wazema
German historian Manfred Kropp believed the author of the regnal list was Ethiopian foreign minister Heruy Wolde Selassie (1878–1938). Selassie was a philosopher and historian, and had mastered several European languages. He had previously served as secretary to Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889–1913). [15] At the time the list was written in 1922, Selassie was president of the special court in Addis Ababa, whose job was to resolve disputes between Ethiopians and foreigners. [16]
Kropp noted that Selassie's historical sources include the Bible, Christian Arab writers Jirjis al-Makin Ibn al-'Amid (1205–1273) and Ibn al-Rāhib (1205–1295), and Christian traveller and writer Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160–240). Kropp argued that Selassie was one of a number of Ethiopian writers who sought to synchronize Ethiopian history with the wider Christian-Oriental histories. This was aided by the translation of Arabic texts in the 17th century. Kropp also felt that the developing field of Egyptology influenced Selassie's writings, particularly from Eduard Meyer, Gaston Maspero and Alexandre Moret, whose works were published in French in Addis Ababa in the early 20th century. Kropp believed that Selassie was also assisted by French missionaries and the works they held in their libraries. [17] Kropp additionally theorized that Tafari Makonnen played a large role in the writing of the list. [18]
Selassie wrote a book titled Wazema which contained a version of the regnal list. Wazema translates to The Vigil, a metaphor to celebrate the history of the kings of Ethiopia. [19] The book was divided into two sections, the first deals with political Ethiopian history from the dawn of history to modern times, while the second section deals with the history of the Ethiopian church. [19] Manfred Kropp noted there were three different versions of the regnal list published in the works of Heruy Wolde Selassie. Selassie's regnal list omits the first dynasty of Tafari's list – the so-called "Tribe of Ori or Aram" – and also the first three rulers of the second dynasty, instead beginning in 2545 BC with king Sebtah. Selassie himself stated that he used European literature among his sources, including James Bruce's Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile . [20] Manfred Kropp felt the existence of multiple versions of the regnal list suggest that Selassie grew increasingly critical of the sources he used for the first version of the list in 1922. [21] Ethiopian historian Sergew Hable Selassie commented that Heruy Wolde Selassie "strove for accuracy" but the sources he used for Wazema "precluded his success". [19]
Manfred Kropp noted one important source for the information in Wazema. Selassie himself told the reader that if they wish to find out about more about Joktan, the supposed founder of the Ag'azyan dynasty, they could consult page 237 of a book by "Moraya". At first Kropp thought this was referring to Alexandre Moret, [22] but it was later made clear that Selassie's regnal list had been significantly inspired by a book called Histoire de l'Éthiopie by Louis J. Morié, published in 1904. [3]
Louis J. Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie
Louis J. Morié was a French historian who wrote a history of Ethiopia in the early 20th century. The two-volume work, titled Histoire de l'Éthiopie (Nubie et Abyssinie), was published in 1904, the first volume focusing on ancient Nubia (called "Ancient Ethiopia" by Morié) and the second volume focusing on Abyssinia ("Modern Ethiopia"). [23] [24] An abridged edition was printed in 1897, but only 100 copies were made for the author's friends. [25] Historian Manfred Kropp identified the first volume as a key source in the creation of the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list and provided evidence from Morié's text that corroborated the names and information on the list. [3] Kropp noted that Morié's book was more imaginative than scientific in its approach to Ethiopian history and blamed Selassie's European friends and contemporaries for the influence of Morié's book on Selassie's writing of Ethiopian history. [3] E. A. Wallis Budge mentions Morié's book in his own similarly titled two-volume work A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, [26] but surprisingly makes no mention of the clear similarity between Morié's narrative and the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list. Charles Rey, in his book Unconquered Abyssinia, mentioned an "enthusiastic French writer" who had "gone as far as to date the birth of the Abyssinian monarchy from the foundation of the Kingdom of Meroë by Cush about 5800 B.C." but Rey felt this writer could "not be taken seriously" because of his belief that the Deluge was a historical event. [8] Rey was likely referring to Morié, who had claimed that 5800 BC was the approximate date when Cush began ruling Aethiopia and he also treated the Biblical flood narrative as historical fact. [27] Like Budge, Rey apparently did not notice the striking the similarities between Morié's narrative and the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list.
Morié's book displays his desire to hold on to religion and Biblical narratives in a world that was increasingly looking towards science. He showed concern with the possibility of abandoning religion, which would result in the "civilized" peoples of the world to descend down the moral scale. [28] Morié felt that it was possible for science and religion to be in agreement. [29] He described Atheism as a cause of moral and political decadence. [30] Because of his anxieties of the decline of religion, Morié sought to base his historical narrative around the Biblical timeline. He described the Book of Genesis as the best source to consult on the most remote parts of human history. [31]
Morié believed the "Ethiopian state of Meroe" was the oldest empire of the post-Flood world, having been founded by Cush of the Bible, and went on to birth the kingdoms of Egypt, Uruk, Babylon, Assyria and Abyssinia. [32] Morié followed the Biblical tradition by crediting Nimrod, a son of Cush, with founding Uruk and Babylon, and crediting Mizraim, a son of Ham, with founding Egypt. [29] He additionally identified Mizraim with the Egyptian god Osiris, Ham with Amun and Cush with Khonsu. [33] Morié defined the history of "Ethiopia" as divided into two parts; Ancient Nubia and Christian Abyssinia, [34] and defined "Ethiopians" as the Nubian and Abyssinian peoples. [35] Morié acknowledged the potential confusion this could cause and thus occasionally used "Abyssinia" to specify which of these two regions he was writing about, with a priority of using "Ethiopia" for ancient Nubia. [36]
Alaqa Taye's History of the People of Ethiopia
Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam (1861–1924) was a Protestant Ethiopian scholar, translator and teacher whose written works include books on grammar, religion and Ethiopian history. [37] He was ordered by Menelik II to write a complete history of Ethiopia using Ethiopian, European and Arab sources. [38] Taye's work was not published in his lifetime. His first historical work was Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik ("History of the People of Ethiopia"), which was published in 1922, the same year Tafari's regnal list was written. [39] The book contained legends and folk stories around the origins of different people of Ethiopia. [39] Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik was a condensed from of a much larger work titled Ya-Ityopya Mangist Tarik ("History of the Ethiopian State"), which has not been published and is only known to exist in partial form as manuscripts. [40] Ethiopian historian Sergew Hable Selassie felt this book did not "do justice to [Taye's] erudition and does not reflect his true ability", as it was based on "unreliable sources" and was "not at all systematic". [19]
Taye's History of the People of Ethiopia contains a regnal list that matches closely with the one copied by Tafari. [41] The first edition from 1922 contained a list of monarchs who reigned after the birth of Christ, beginning with Bazen. [40] The sixth edition from 1965 expanded the list to include monarchs who reigned from Akhunas Saba II (1930 BC) onwards, corresponding with the Ag'azyan and Menelik dynasties of Tafari's list. [42] The first edition however does refer to the earlier dynasties of Ori and Kam and provides some background information on them. [43] The longer text Ya-Ityopya Mangist Tarik originally contained more in-depth information on all the dynasties that appear on Tafari's version of the regnal list. [44]
In recent years, there has been more credible and conclusive evidence that some of Alaqa Taye's manuscripts were acquired by Heruy Wolde Selassie and published as his own works, including Wazema. [45] Such evidence strengthens the possibility that Taye wrote the original regnal list instead of Selassie. Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik preceded the publication of Heruy Wolde Selassie's book Wazema by at least seven years. [41]
Like Selassie, Taye acknowledged Louis J. Morié, whose work he described as one of the many "learned books of history". [46] Taye noted that his history had been selectively gathered from the works of Homer, Herodotus, James Bruce, Jean-François Champollion, Hiob Ludolf, Karl Wilhelm Isenberg, Werner Munzinger, Enno Littmann, Giacomo De Martino, 'Eli Samni', 'Traversi', 'Eli Bizon', 'Ignatius Guidi' (Ignatius of Jesus?), Al-Azraqi, Ibn Ishaq, 'Abul-'Izz', Bar Hebraeus (called "Abul-Farag"), Yohannis Madbir and Giyorgis Walda Amid. [46] He also gathered information from an unnamed history of Yemen, the Alexander Romance (called "The Book of Alexander") and an ancient work of history found at Zaway. [46] Taye additionally noted numerous Biblical verses that he recommended to readers for them to understand the history of the Ethiopian peoples and kings. [46]
Other sources and cultural influences
Other Ethiopian regnal lists
Numerous regnal lists of Ethiopian monarchs from before 1922 are known to survive and show a clear influence on the compiling of the 1922 list. There are known to be lists that date back to the 13th century which are reliable for the period of the Solomonic dynasty, but are often based on legendary memories for the Kingdom of Aksum. [47] These lists allow chroniclers to provide proof of legitimacy for the Solomonic dynasty by linking it back to the Axumite period. [48] The lists were also intended to fill in gaps between major events, such as the meeting of Makeda and Solomon in the 10th century BC, the arrival of Frumentius in the early 4th century and the rise of the Zagwe dynasty in the 10th century. [49] However, many regnal lists show great variations in the names of the Axumite monarchs, with only a few, such as Menelik I, Bazen, Abreha and Atsbeha and Kaleb frequently appearing across the majority of lists. The 1922 regnal list noticeably tries to accommodate all these differing traditions by including the majority of the different kings into one longer line of succession.
Unpublished sources
It is possible that Tafari's regnal list includes information gathered from sources that have yet to be published or are in private hands. One unpublished text, simply called the Chronicle of Ethiopia, was in the possession of Qesa Gabaz Takla Haymanot of Aksum. [50] The author of this chronicle collected information from various old chronicles held in a number of different churches and monasteries, and attempted to compile the information in a "harmonic" way. [51] The chronicle covers information from the reign of Menelik I to Menelik II. [51] Some of the known information from this unpublished chronicle does support elements of Tafari's list.
Biblical influences
Various Biblical figures are included on the 1922 regnal list. Three of Noah's descendants are named as founders or ancestors of the first three dynasties; Aram, Ham and Joktan, with some of their sons and descendents also appearing on the list. Other Biblical figures include Zerah the Cushite and the Queen of Sheba, whom Ethiopians call "Makeda". According to Ethiopian tradition Makeda was an ancestor of the Solomonic dynasty and mother of Menelik I, whose father was king Solomon of Israel. The meeting of Makeda and Solomon is recorded in the text Kebra Nagast .
The Biblical events of the flood and the fall of the Tower of Babel are both included in the chronology of the regnal list, dated respectively to 3244 BC and 2713 BC, with the 531-year period in between an interregnum where no kings are named. Another Biblical story included is that of the Ethiopian eunuch, named Jen Daraba according to this regnal list, who visited Jerusalem during the reign of the 169th sovereign Garsemot Kandake VI.
Coptic and Arabic influences
The first dynasty of the regnal list, the Tribe of Ori, is taken from medieval Coptic and Arabic texts on the kings of Egypt who ruled before the Great Flood. French historian Louis J. Morié, in his 1904 book Histoire de L'Ethiopie, recorded a similar list of monarchs to those who are part of the Tribe of Ori. [52] Morié noted the regnal list he saw was recorded by the Copts in their annals and was found in both Coptic and Arabic tradition. [53] He noted there had originally been a list of 40 kings, but only 19 of them had been preserved up to the early 20th century. [54] He believed that the regnal list originated from the works of Murtada ibn al-Afif, an Arab writer from the 12th century who wrote a number of works, though only one, titled The Prodigies of Egypt, has partially survived to the present day. [54] [55]
Manfred Kropp theorized the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list may have been influenced by the works of Ibn al-Rāhib, a 13th-century Coptic historian whose works were translated into Ge'ez by Ethiopian writer Enbaqom in the 16th century, and Jirjis al-Makin Ibn al-'Amid, another 13th century Coptic historian whose work Al-Majmu' al-Mubarak (The Blessed Collection) was also translated around the same time. Both writers partially based their information on ancient history from the works of Julius Africanus and through him quote the historical traditions of Egypt as recorded by Manetho. Jirgis was known as "Wälda-Amid" in Ethiopia. [56] Kropp believed that some of the names of the early part of Tafari's regnal list were taken from a regnal list included within Jirgis' text which draws upon traditions from Manetho and the Old Testament. [57]
A medieval Arab text called Akhbar al-Zaman (The History of Time), dated to between 940 and 1140, may have been an earlier version of the regnal list Morié saw. [58] It is likely based on earlier works such as those of Abu Ma'shar (dated to c. 840–860). [58] The authorship is unknown, but it may have been written by historian Al-Masudi based on earlier Arab, Christian and Greek sources. [58] Another possible author is Ibrahim ibh Wasif Shah who lived during the Twelfth century. [58] The text contains a collection of lore about Egypt and the wider world in the age before the Great Flood and after it. [58] Included is a list of kings of Egypt who ruled before the Great Flood and this list shows some similarities with the list of kings of the "Tribe of Ori or Aram" included on Tafari's list, who also ruled before the Great Flood. Several kings show similarities in names and chronological order, though not all kings on one list appear on the other.
A number of Coptic monks from Egypt came to Ethiopia in the 13th century and brought with them many books written in Coptic and Arabic. These monks also translated many works into Ge'ez. [59] It is possible that the legends from Akhbar al-Zaman may have entered Ethiopia during this time.
Ancient Egyptian and Nubian influences
Many of the Egyptian and Nubian monarchs included on the list are historically verified but did not rule the region of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, and often have reign dates that do no match historical dates used by modern-day archaeologists. The rulers numbered 88 to 96 on the list are the High Priests of Amun who were the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt during the time of the Twenty-first dynasty (c. 1077–943 BC). Several other kings on the list have names that are clearly influenced by those of Egyptian pharaohs such as Senefrou (8), Amen I (28), Amen II (43), Ramenpahte (44), Tutimheb (53), Amen Emhat I (63), Amen Emhat II (83), Amen Hotep Zagdur (102), Aksumay Ramissu (103) and Apras (127).
Numerous monarchs of the Kushite kingdom in modern-day Sudan are also included on the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list. Most of the pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled over both Nubia and Egypt, are listed as part of the dynasty of Menelik I. However, the Kushite Pharaohs are not known to have ruled much further south than the area of modern-day South Sudan. Kushite monarchs from after the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty of Egypt are also occasionally mentioned on this list, specifically Aktisanes (65), Aspelta (118), Harsiotef (119), Nastasen (120), Arakamani (138) and Arqamani (145). Additionally, there are six queens on this list who are referred to as "Kandake", the Meroitic term for the king's sister used by the rulers of Kush. Apart from the monarchs listed above, there were also some Viceroys of Kush who ruled over Nubia during the New Kingdom after Egypt conquered the Kingdom of Kerma in c. 1500 BC.
Louis J. Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie served as the main source for these Egyptian and Nubian monarchs and the regnal order they are presented in on the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list, as noted above. [3] However, there are other reasons why the author of this regnal list felt that the inclusion of Egyptian and Nubian monarchs was appropriate for a historical outline of Ethiopia/Abyssinia. One reason is due to the Axumite conquest of Meroë, the last capital of the Kingdom of Kush, by King Ezana in c. 325 AD. [60] It was from this point onward that the Axumites began referring to themselves as "Ethiopians", the Greco-Roman term previously used largely for the Kushites. [61] Following this, the inhabitants of Axum (modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea) were able to claim lineage from the "Ethiopians" or "Aethiopians" mentioned in the Bible, including the Kandakes, who were actually Kushites. The claiming of the term "Ethiopian" by the Axumites may, however, pre-date Christianity. For example, Axumite king Ezana is called "King [...] of the Ethiopians" on a Greek inscription where he also calls himself "son of the invincible Mars", suggesting this pre-dates his conversion to Christianity. [62]
Professor of Anthropology Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban believed the inclusion of Kushite rulers on the 1922 regnal list suggests that the traditions of ancient Nubia were considered culturally compatible with those of Axum. [63] Makeda, the Biblical Queen of Sheba, was referred to as "Candace" or "Queen Mother" in the Kebra Nagast , [64] suggesting a cultural connection between Ethiopia and the ancient kingdom of Kush. Portuguese missionary Francisco Álvares, who travelled to Ethiopia in 1520, recorded one Ethiopian tradition which claimed that Yeha was "the favourite residence of Queen Candace, when she honoured the country with her presence". [65]
E. A. Wallis Budge theorized that one of the reasons why the name "Ethiopia" was applied to Abyssinia was because Syrian monks identified Kush and Nubia with Abyssinia when translating the Bible from Greek to Ge'ez. [66] Budge further noted that translators of the Bible into Greek identified Kush with Ethiopia and this was carried over into the translation from Greek to Ge'ez. [67] Louis J. Morié likewise believed the adoption of the word "Ethiopia" by the Abyssinians was due to their desire to search for their origins in the Bible and coming across the word "Ethiopia" in Greek translations. [68] Historian Adam Simmons noted that the 3rd century Greek translation of the Bible translated the Hebrew toponym "Kūš" into "Aethiopia". [69] He argued that Abyssinia did not cement its "Ethiopian" identity until the translation of the Kebra Nagast from Arabic to Ge'ez during the reign of Amda Seyon I (r. 1314–1344). [69] He also argued that global association of the name "Ethiopia" with Abyssinia only took place in the reign of Menelik II, particularly after his success at the Battle of Adwa in 1896, when the Italians were defeated. [69]
E. A. Wallis Budge argued that it was unlikely that the "Ethiopians" mentioned in ancient Greek writings were the Abyssinians, but instead were far more likely to be the Nubians of Meroë. [70] He believed the native name of the region around Axum was "Habesh" from which "Abyssinia" is derived and originating in the name of the Habasha tribe from southern Arabia. He did note however that the modern day people of the region did not like this term and preferred the name "Ethiopia" due to its association with Kush. [67] The ancient Nubians are not known to have used the term "Ethiopian" to refer to themselves, however Silko, the first Christian Nubian king of Nobatia, in the early sixth century described himself as "Chieftain of the Nobadae and of all the Ethiopians". [71] The earliest known Greek writings that mention "Aethiopians" date to the 8th century BC, in the writings of Homer and Hesiod. Herodotus, in his work Histories (c. 430 BC), defined "Aethiopia" as beginning at the island of Elephantine and including all land south of Egypt, with the capital being Meroe. [72] This geographical definition confirms that in ancient times the term "Aethiopia" was commonly used to refer to Nubia and the Kingdom of Kush rather than modern day Ethiopia. The earliest known writer to use the name "Ethiopia" for the region of the Kingdom of Axum was Philostorgius in c. 440 AD. [73]
There are also some pieces of archaeological evidence that show connections between ancient Nubia and Abyssinia. Some Nubian objects from the Napatan and Meroitic periods have been found in Ethiopian/Abyssinian graves dating to the 8th to 2nd centuries BC. [74] There have also been discoveries of red-orange sherds similar to those from the pre-Axumite period in sites of the Jebel Mokram Group in Sudan, showing contacts along caravan routes toward the Nile Valley in the 1st millennium BC. [75] This shows that interactions between Nubia and modern day Ethiopia long pre-date the Axumite conquest. Archaeologist Rodolfo Fattovich believed that the people of the pre-Axumite culture had contacts with the kingdom of Kush, the Achaemenid Empire and the Greeks, but that these contacts were "mostly indirect". [76]
Scottish traveller James Bruce, in his multi-volume work Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile included a drawing of a stele found in Axum and brought back to Gondar by the Ethiopian emperor. The stele had carved figures of Egyptian gods and was inscribed with hieroglyphs. E. A. Wallis Budge believed the stele to be a "Cippi of Horus" which were placed in homes and temples to keep evil spirits away. He noted that these date from the end of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (c. 664–525 BC) onwards. Budge believed this was proof of contacts between Egypt and Axum in the early 4th century BC. [77] Archaeological excavations in the Kassala region have also revealed direct contact with Pharaonic Egypt. Some tombs excavated in the Yeha region, the likely capital of the Dʿmt kingdom, contained imported albastron dated to c. 770–404 BC which had a Napatan or Egyptian origin. [78]
Budge noted that none of the Egyptian and Nubian kings on the 1922 list appear on other known regnal lists from Ethiopia. He believed that contemporary Ethiopian priests had been "reading a modern European History of Egypt" and had incorporated in the regnal list Egyptian pharaohs who had "laid Nubia and other parts of the Sudan under tribute", as well as the names of various Kushite kings and Priest kings. [79] To support his argument, he stated that while the names of Abyssinian kings have meanings, the names of Egyptian kings would be meaningless if translated into the Ethiopian language. [79] Manfred Kropp likewise noted that no Ethiopian manuscript prior to the 1922 regnal list included names of monarchs resembling those used by Egyptian rulers. [1]
A comparison of known Ethiopian regnal lists shows that most of the monarchs on the 1922 list with Egyptian or Nubian names do not have these elements in their names on other regnal lists (see Regnal lists of Ethiopia). For example, the 102nd king on Tafari's list, Amen Hotep Zagdur, only appears as "Zagdur" on earlier regnal lists. [80] The next king, Aksumay Ramissu, is only known as "Aksumay" on earlier lists, while the 106th king, Abralyus Wiyankihi II, was previously only known as "Abralyus". [80] The 111th king, Tsawi Terhak Warada Nagash, is a combination of multiple kings. One king named "Sawe" or "Za Tsawe" is listed as the fifth king following Menelik I according to some lists, while another king named "Warada Nagash" is named as the eighth king following Menelik I on different lists. [80] No known list includes both kings, and the 1922 list combined the two different kings as a single entry, with the addition of the name "Terhak", to be equated with the Kushite Pharaoh Taharqa, who otherwise does not appear on earlier Ethiopian regnal lists. [80] Also missing from earlier Ethiopian regnal lists are the six "Kandake" queens numbered 110, 135, 137, 144, 162 and 169.
The inclusion of the High Priests of Amun who ruled Upper Egypt between c. 1080 and 943 BC can be directly traced to Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie and contemporary Egyptology. [3] The association between these Egyptian High Priests and Aethiopia was particularly strong in European Egyptological writings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During this period, several major Egyptologists (such as Heinrich Brugsch, James Breasted and George Reisner) believed that the rise of the Kush kingdom was due to the influence of the High Priests of Amun moving into Nubia towards the end of the Twentieth Dynasty because of political conflict arising at the end of the New Kingdom. [81] Brugsch in particular entertained the idea that the early Kushite kings were lineal descendants of the priests from Egypt, though this was explicitly rejected by Breasted. [81] Later Egyptologists A. J. Arkell and Walter Emery theorized that a priestly "government in exile" had influenced the Kushite kingdom. [82] E. A. Wallis Budge agreed with these ideas and suggested that the High Priests of Amun moved south to Nubia due to the rise of the Libyan pharaohs in Lower Egypt, and consolidated their high position by intermarrying with Nubian women. Budge further theorised that the name of the Nubian pharaoh Piye or "Piankhi" was taken from that of the High Priest of Amun Piankh and he was possibly Piankh's descendant. [83] Such ideas around the Kushite monarchy originating from this specific line of priests are now considered outdated, but the popularity of these theories in the early 20th century explains their inclusion, in almost exact chronological order, on the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list.
Greek sources
A number of figures from Greek mythology are included on the regnal list, in most cases due to being described as " Aethiopian " in ancient sources. Louis J. Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie is again largely responsible for their inclusion. His book included Memnon, a mythical king of "Aethiopia" who fought in the Trojan War, his father Tithonus, and his brother Emathion, who are all included on the regnal list under the names Amen Emhat II (83), Titon Satiyo (81) and Hermantu (82). [84] Cassiopeia was also mentioned in Morié's book, but he confusingly uses the name for two different women. [85] This results in the 1922 regnal list including Cassiopeia under the name of Kasiyope (49) while her husband Cepheus is listed four hundred years later under the name Kefe (71).
The list additionally included figures who were not part of Morié's narrative, showing that the author used other sources to build the regnal list. The legendary Egyptian king Mandes, as written about in Diodorus' work Bibliotheca Historia, appears on the list as the 66th monarch. [86] This text by Diodorus seems to have influenced other parts of the regnal list, such as the inclusion of king "Actisanes" as the direct predecessor of Mandes, the name "Sabakon" for the 122nd monarch of the regnal list (an alternate name for the Kushite pharaoh Shabaka) and the 127th monarch named "Apras", the Greek name for Egyptian pharaoh Wahibre Haaibre. [86]
The list of Egyptian kings from Herodotus' Histories also had some influence on the 1922 regnal list, with the various names of rulers being re-used for "Ethiopian" monarchs. Examples include "Nitocris" used for Nicotnis Kandake IV (no. 162), "Proteus" used for "Protawos" (no. 67), as well as the aforementioned "Sabakon" used for Safelya Sabakon (no. 122) and "Apries" for Apras (no. 127). [87] Manetho's Aegyptiaca is another source for certain names on the regnal list, such as "Sebikos" for Agalbus Sepekos (no. 123), "Tarakos" for Awseya Tarakos (no. 125) and "Sabakon". [88]
Conflict with other Ethiopian traditions
The list occasionally contradicts other Ethiopian traditions. One example is that of king Angabo I, who is placed in the middle of the Ag'azyan dynasty on this list. However some Ethiopian legends instead claim he was the founder of a new dynasty. [89] In both cases the dating is given as the 14th century BC.
E. A. Wallis Budge noted that there were differing versions of the chronological order of the Ethiopian kings, with some lists stating that a king named Aithiopis was the first to rule while other lists claim that the first king was Adam. [90] Tafari's list instead begins with Aram.
The list also has its own internal conflicting information. Tafari claims that it was during the reign of the 169th monarch, queen Garsemot Kandake VI, in the first century AD when Christianity was formally introduced to Ethiopia. However, this is in direct conflict with the story of the later queen Sofya, who ruled 249 years later.
Responses to the regnal list
Contemporary historian Manfred Kropp described the regnal list as an artfully woven document developed as a rational and scientific attempt by an educated Ethiopian from the early 20th century to reconcile historical knowledge of Ethiopia. Kropp noted that the regnal list has often been viewed by historians as little more than an example of a vague notion of historical tradition in north-east Africa. However he did also note that the working methods and sources used by the author of the list remain unclear. [17] Kropp further stated that despite some rulers' names having astonishing similarities to those of Egyptian and Meroitic/Nubian rulers, there has been little attempt to critically examine the regnal list in relation to other Ethiopian sources. [91] Kropp noted that Tafari's regnal list was the first Ethiopian regnal list that attempted to provide names of kings from the 970th year of the world's creation onwards without any chronological gaps. In particular, it was the first Ethiopian regnal list to consistently fill in all dates from the time of Solomon to the Zagwe dynasty. Kropp felt that the regnal list was a result of incorporating non-native traditions of "Aethiopia" into native Ethiopian history. [1]
Egyptologist E. A. Wallis Budge (1857–1934) was dismissive of the claims of great antiquity made by the Abyssinians, whom he described as having a "passionate desire to be considered a very ancient nation", which had been aided by the "vivid imagination of their scribes" who borrowed traditions from the Semites (such as Yamanites, Himyarites and Hebrews) and modified them to "suit [their] aspirations". He noted the lack of pre-Christian regnal lists and believed that there was no 'kingdom' of Abyssinia/Ethiopia until the time of king Zoskales (c. 200 AD). Budge additionally stated that all extant manuscripts date to the 17th–19th centuries and believed that any regnal lists found in them originated from Arab and Coptic writers. [2] Budge felt the 1922 regnal list "proves" that "almost all kings of Abyssinia were of Asiatic origin" and descended from "Southern or Northern Semites" before the reign of Yekuno Amlak. [92] However, native Ethiopian rule before Yekuno Amlak is evidenced by the kingdoms of D'mt (c. 980–400 BC) and Aksum (c. 150 BC–960 AD), as well as by the rule of the Zagwe dynasty.
The Geographical Journal reviewed In the Country of the Blue Nile in 1928, and noted the regnal list, which contained "many more names [...] than in previously published lists" and was "evidently a careful compilation" which helps to "clear up the tangled skein of Ethiopian history". [93] However, the reviewer did also notice that it "[contained] discrepancies" which Rey "[made] no attempt to clear up". [93] The reviewer pointed to how king Dil Na'od is said to have reigned for 10 years from 910 to 920, yet travel writer James Bruce previously stated the deposition of this dynasty occurred in 960, 40 years later. [93] The reviewer did admit, however, that Egyptologist Henry Salt's dating of this event to 925 may have had "more reason" to it compared to Bruce's dating, considering that Salt's dating is seemingly backed up by Tafari's regnal list. [93]
The Washington Post made use of the regnal list when reporting on the coronation of Haile Selassie in 1930. The paper reported that Selassie would become "the 336th sovereign of [the Ethiopian] empire" which was "founded in the ninety-seventh [sic] year after the creation of the world" and as such his reign would begin in "the 6,460th year of the reign of the Ethiopian dynasty". [94] The newspaper noted that Adam was no longer "claimed by Ethiopians as the original ancestor of the kings of Ethiopia" and instead the modern Abyssinians claimed their first king was "Ori, or Aram, the son of Shem". [94] The same article mentioned the 531-year gap between the Flood and the fall of the Tower of Babel, during which time "42 different Ethiopian sovereigns ruled Africa", though the regnal list itself did not provide any names for this time period. [94]
