List of French inventions and discoveries

Arts and entertainment

• Gothic art in the mid-12th century. ^[1]
• Ars nova: a musical style which flourished in the Kingdom of France and its surroundings during the Late Middle Ages.
• Oboe, or hautbois, in the mid-17th century France, probably by Jacques-Martin Hotteterre and his family or by the Philidor family. ^[2] Variants of the oboe like the graïle, the bombard and the piston were later created in Languedoc and Brittany.

100s engraving French Roulette

• Many bagpipes were developed in France, ^{[3] [4]} including the Biniou, the bodega, the Boha, the Bousine, the Cabrette, the Chabrette, the Cornemuse du Centre, the loure, the Musette bechonnet, the Musette bressane and the Musette de cour.
• First mechanical metronome by Étienne Loulié in 1696 (but the modern form of the metronome was patented only in 1815 ^[5] ).
• Rococo in the early 18th century. ^[6]
• Clavecin électrique, earliest surviving electric-powered musical instrument, in 1759 by Jean-Baptiste Thillaie Delaborde ^[7]
• Roulette was developed in 18th century France ^[8] from a primitive form created by Blaise Pascal (17th century). ^[9] In 1843, Louis and François Blanc introduced the single 0 style roulette wheel.
• Many other gambling games and card games (including the French suits around 1480) ^[10] were invented in France, some from earlier games :
  • From earlier Italian games : Basset, Biribi and Tarot (see Tarot of Marseilles and French tarot)
  • From earlier Spanish games : Quinze and, maybe, Piquet
  • Other : Faro (from the Basset), Brelan, Bouillotte, Commerce, Trente et Quarante, Belote and maybe Blackjack. ^[11]
• Photography:
  • Photolithography and the first photographic image ever produced in 1822 by Nicéphore Niépce (Saône-et-Loire) ^[12]
  • Daguerreotype by Nicéphore Niépce and Louis Daguerre
  • Hércules Florence coined photographie in 1834, French word at the origin of the English word photography. ^[13]

A scene from A Trip to the Moon (1902) by Georges Méliès.

• Fairground organ by Joseph and Antoine Limonaire and Giacomo Gavioli. ^{[14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20]}
• Collotype process by Alphonse Poitevin in 1856. ^[21]
• Beaux-Arts architecture: a 19th century architectural style drawing upon principles of French neoclassicism, and taking inspiration from the baroque and rococo styles.
• Impressionism: a 19th-century art movement originating with Parisian artists.
• Vaudeville: a theatrical genre of variety entertainment born in France at the end of the 19th century.
• The praxinoscope of Charles-Émile Reynaud (1877) is an animation device intermediary between the zoetrope and film.
• Bal-musette: a style of French instrumental music and dance that first became popular in Paris in the 1880s. Although it began with bagpipes as the main instrument, this instrument was replaced with accordion, on which a variety of waltzes, polkas, and other dance styles were played for dances.
• Cabaret by Rodolphe Salis in 1881 in Paris. ^[22]
• Chronophotography by Étienne-Jules Marey (co-developed with Eadweard Muybridge, Albert Londe, Georges Demeny and Ottomar Anschutz) in 1882 in Paris. ^[23]
• Ambient music: as an early 20th-century French composer, Erik Satie used such Dadaist-inspired explorations to create an early form of ambient/background music that he labeled "furniture music" (Musique d'ameublement). This he described as being the sort of music that could be played during a dinner to create a background atmosphere for that activity, rather than serving as the focus of attention.
• Cinema, developed from chronophotography:
  • First motion picture camera and first projector by Louis Le Prince, Frenchman who worked in the United Kingdom and the United States. ^{[24] [25] [26]}
  • The cinematograph by Léon Bouly (1892).
  • First commercial, public screening of cinematographic films by Auguste and Louis Lumière in Paris on 28 December 1895. ^[27]
  • Georges Méliès: first filmmaker to use the stop trick, or substitution, multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand-painted color in his films. His most famous film, A Trip to the Moon (Le voyage dans la Lune), in 1902, was the first science fiction film and the most popular movie of its time (another of his productions, Le Manoir du diable is also sometimes considered the first horror movie). ^[28]
• Impressionist music: developed during the late 19th century by French composers, such as Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel.
• Developments of the modern piano (invented by the Italian Bartolomeo Cristofori) : Pleyel et Cie (double piano), Sébastien Érard (double escapement action), Jean-Louis Boisselot (sostenuto pedal), Henri Fourneaux (Player piano). ^[29]
• Fauvism: a style of art pioneered by early 20th-century French modern artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities and strong color over the representational or realistic values retained by Impressionism.
• Ondes Martenot in 1928 by Maurice Martenot (early electronic musical instrument ). ^[30]
• Gemmail in the 1930s by painter Jean Crotti. ^[31]
• Musique concrète: a type of music composition that utilizes recorded sounds as raw material developed by French composer Pierre Schaeffer beginning in the early 1940s.
• Sampling (music): sampling originated in the 1940s with musique concrète.
• Clavioline, an electronic keyboard instrument, by Constant Martin in 1947. ^[32]
• Etch A Sketch by André Cassagnes in the late 1950s. ^{[33] [34] [35] [36]}
• Yé-yé: a style of pop music that emerged in France.
• Cold wave: a music genre that emerged with French, as well as Belgian and Polish musicians in the late 1970s.
• DivX around 1998 by Jérôme Rota at Montpellier. ^[37]
• Synthwave: originated in France by producers such as David Grellier, Justice, and Kavinsky.
• Blackgaze: a fusion of black metal and shoegaze that traces its origins to the work of French musician Neige.

Chemistry

Appert canning jar

• Discovery of natural rubber/latex by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1736. ^[38]
• Oxygen, discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in Uppsala, Sweden, in 1772, and labelled "fire air", would be renamed by Antoine Lavoisier in 1778. ^[39]
• Hydrogen by Antoine Lavoisier in 1783. ^[39]
• Argand lamp by Swiss-born Aimé Argand and by Antoine Quinquet in 1783 in Paris. ^[40]
• The first extensive list of elements (see periodic table) by Antoine Lavoisier in 1787.
• Leblanc process by Nicolas Leblanc in 1791. ^[41]
• Beryllium by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin ^[42]
• Chromium by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin in 1797 ^[39]
• Appertization or Canning by Nicolas Appert in 1809. ^[43]
• Polyvinyl chloride in 1838 by Henri Victor Regnault (but the PVC will only be plasticized industrially nearly a century later). ^[44]
• Helio
• Photovoltaic effect by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839. ^{[45] [46]}
• Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard in April 1862. ^[47]
• Gallium by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875. ^[39]
• Production of Liquid oxygen by Louis Paul Cailletet in 1877 (at the same time but with another method than Raoul Pictet). ^[48]
• Artificial silk by Hilaire de Chardonnet in 1884. ^[49]
• Chamberland filter, also known as a Pasteur–Chamberland filter, a porcelain water filter invented by Charles Chamberland in 1884. ^[50]
• Fluorine by Henri Moissan in 1886 ^[39]
• Aluminium electrolysis in 1886 by Paul Héroult (at the same time but independently from American Martin Hall). ^[51]
• Europium by Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1890 ^[39]
• Viscose by Hilaire de Chardonnet in Échirolles in 1891. ^[52]
• Chemical Bleach by Claude Berthollet and Antoine Germain Labarraque (with the Swedish chemist Karl Wilhelm Scheele and Scottish chemist Charles Tennant)^{[ citation needed ]}

Neon sign

• Berthelot's reagent by Marcellin Berthelot in the late nineteenth century.
• Polonium by Pierre and Marie Curie in July 1898. ^[39]
• Radium by Pierre and Marie Curie in December 1898. ^[39]
• Boron carbide by Henri Moissan in 1899. ^[53]
• Actinium by André-Louis Debierne in 1899. ^{[54] [55]}
• Discovery of the Grignard reaction or Grignard reagent by Victor Grignard ^[56] in 1900.
• Verneuil process (method to manufacture synthetic gemstones) by Auguste Verneuil in 1902.
• Laminated glass by the French chemist Edouard Benedictus in 1903.
• Moissanite by Henri Moissan in 1904. ^{[57] [58]}
• Neon lighting by Georges Claude in 1910. ^[59]
• Francium by Marguerite Perey in 1939. ^[39]

Physics, mathematics and measure

The Foucault pendulum in the Panthéon, Paris.

• Cartesian Coordinate System by René Descartes in 1637 (and independently by Pierre de Fermat at the same period).
• The calculator by Blaise Pascal (Pascaline) in 1642. ^[60] (see also Adding machine)
• Probability theory by Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal in the seventeenth century (with Gerolamo Cardano and Christiaan Huygens). ^[61]
• Vernier scale by Pierre Vernier in 1631. ^{[62] [63]}
• Spirit level by Melchisédech Thévenot in 1661. ^[64]
• Roberval Balance by Gilles de Roberval in 1669. ^[65]
• Réaumur scale by René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur in 1730. ^[66]
• Pitot tube by Henri Pitot in 1732 ^[67] and modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by Henry Darcy. ^[68]

Comparison of De Moivre's approximation with the factorial; the formula is now known as Stirling's approximation.

• Stirling's formula was discovered and proven by Abraham de Moivre circa 1733. ^{[69] [70] [ unreliable source? ] [71]}
• The conservation of mass by Antoine Lavoisier ^[72] (18th century).
• Modern hydrometer by Jacques Charles. ^[73]
• Metric system during the French Revolution. ^{[74] [75]} and several measures used in physics in the SI.
• Laplace's equation, Laplace operator, Laplace transform, Laplace distribution, Laplace's demon, Laplace expansion, Young–Laplace equation, Laplace number, Laplace limit, Laplace invariant, Laplace principle, proof that every equation of an even degree must have at least one real quadratic factor, solution of the linear partial differential equation of the second order and general proof of the Lagrange reversion theorem by Pierre-Simon Laplace in the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth century. ^[76]
• The Gay-lussac Scale used by hydrometers and alcoholometers by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (after an idea of Jacques Charles).

Optical pumping of a laser rod (bottom) with an arc lamp (top). Red: hot. Blue: cold. Green: light. Non-green arrows: water flow. Solid colors: metal. Light colors: fused quartz. Refs: , ,

• Polariscope and discovery of Rotary polarization by François Arago. He invented the first polarization filter in 1812. ^[77]
• Arithmometer by Thomas de Colmar in 1820. ^[78]
• Dynamometer by Gaspard de Prony (de Prony brake) in 1821. ^[79]
• Complex analysis and complex function theory by Augustin-Louis Cauchy, including Cauchy's integral theorem.
• Fourier analysis and Fourier transform by Joseph Fourier in 1822. ^[80]
• Electrometer by Jean Peltier.
• Foucault pendulum by Léon Foucault (who also developed and named the Gyroscope) in February 1851 in the Meridian of the Paris Observatory.
• Ocean thermal energy conversion in 1881 by Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval (first OTEC plant in 1930 in Cuba by his student Georges Claude). ^[81]
• Radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896. ^[82]
• Theorical foundations and mathematical framework of Special relativity by Henri Poincaré, before Albert Einstein used his work in 1905 and later. ^[83]
• Integral imaging by Gabriel Lippmann on 3 March 1908. ^[84]
• Darrieus wind turbine by Georges Jean Marie Darrieus in 1931. ^[85]
• Optical pumping by Alfred Kastler in the early 1950s. ^[86]
• The multiwire proportional chamber by Georges Charpak ^[87] in 1968.
• Linear logic by Jean-Yves Girard in 1987.

Medicine and biology

Modern stethoscope.

Insulin pump, showing an infusion set loaded into spring-loaded insertion device.

• Lamarckism, the first cohesive theory of evolution ^[88] as well as a theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, laid out by French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1809. Long dismissed in favour of Darwinism, recent developments in the field of epigenetics have led scientists to debate whether Lamarckism was, in fact, correct to an extent. ^[89]
• Ligature of arteries in 1565 by Ambroise Paré. ^[90]
• Blood transfusion by Jean-Baptiste Denys on 15 June 1667. ^[91] and first modern transfusion by Émile Jeanbrau on 16 October 1914 (after the first non-direct transfusion performed on 27 March 1914, by the Belgian doctor Albert Hustin).
• Modern dentistry by Pierre Fauchard (father of modern dentistry, early eighteenth century). ^{[92] [93]}
• Modern cataract surgery by Jacques Daviel in 1748 (even if early cataract surgery already existed in the antiquity).
• Discovery of osmosis in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet. ^[94] The word "osmosis" descends from the words "endosmose" and "exosmose", which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847) from the Greek words ένδον (endon : within), έξο (exo : outside), and ωσμος (osmos : push, impulsion).
• The first lifesize obstetrical mannequin, for teaching, by Angelique du Coudray in the 1750s. ^[95]
• Stethoscope in 1816 by René Laennec at the Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital in Paris. ^[96]
• Medical Quinine in 1820 by Joseph Bienaimé Caventou. ^[97]
• Codeine first isolated in 1832 by Pierre Robiquet. ^[98]
• Aspirin in 1853 by Charles Frédéric Gerhardt. ^[99]
• Hypodermic needle in 1853 by Charles Pravaz. ^[100]
• Blind experiment by Claude Bernard (nineteenth century). ^[101]
• Discovery of Plasmodium and its role in malaria by Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran on 6 November 1880. ^{[102] [103]}
• Incubator or Neonatal intensive care unit in 1881 by Étienne Stéphane Tarnier. ^[104] His student, Pierre-Constant Budin, followed in Tarnier's footsteps, creating perinatology in the late 1890s. ^{[105] [106]}
• Germ theory of disease by Louis Pasteur. ^[107]
• Rabies vaccine by Louis Pasteur and Émile Roux in 1885. ^[108]
• Antibiotics by Louis Pasteur and Jean Paul Vuillemin (by means of natural antibiosis; modern artificial antibiotics were developed later by the British Alexander Fleming). ^[109]
• Mantoux test by Charles Mantoux in 1907. ^{[110] [111]}
• Tuberculosis vaccine by Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin in 1921 (BCG). ^[112]
• Antipsychotics in 1952 by Henri Laborit (chlorpromazine). ^[113]
• Discovery of the cause of Down syndrome (chromosome 21 trisomy) by Jérôme Lejeune ^[114] in 1958-1959 (syndrome first described by Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol, Édouard Séguin and John Langdon Down)
• First bone marrow transplant by Georges Mathé, a French oncologist, in 1959 on five Yugoslavian nuclear workers whose own marrow had been damaged by irradiation caused by a Criticality accident at the Vinča Nuclear Institute. ^{[115] [116] [117] [118]}
• Insulin pump in 1981 by Jacques Mirouze (first implantation) in Montpellier. ^[119]
• Discovery of human immunodeficiency virus by Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier ^[120] (1983).
• Deep brain stimulation (DBS) by Alim-Louis Benabid in 1987. ^{[121] [122]}
• Mifepristone, the abortion pill, by Étienne-Émile Baulieu in 1988. ^{[123] [124]}
• Hand transplantation on 23 September 1998, in Lyon by a team assembled from different countries around the world including Jean-Michel Dubernard who, shortly thereafter, performed the first successful double hand transplant. ^[125]
• Telesurgery by Jacques Marescaux and his team on 7 September 2001 across the Atlantic Ocean (New-York-Strasbourg, Lindbergh Operation). ^[126]
• Face transplant on 27 November 2005 ^{[127] [128]} by Dr Bernard Devauchelle.
• CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing by Emmanuelle Charpentier in 2012. ^[129]

Transportation

A model of the Montgolfier brothers' balloon at the London Science Museum

Air France Concorde in 1977

• Taxi by Nicolas Sauvage in Paris in 1640. ^[130]
• Steamboat by Denis Papin. ^[131] A boat with the world's first internal combustion engine was developed in 1807 by fellow Frenchman Nicéphore Niépce
• Automobile by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769. ^{[132] [133]}
• First working Motorcycle, the Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede by Louis-Guillaume Perreaux patented in 1869.
• Hot Air Balloon (later, Aerostat and Airship) by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, François Laurent d'Arlandes, the Montgolfier brothers ^{[134] [135]} and Jacques Charles (who also invented the first hydrogen-filled balloon).
• Parachute in the late 18th century by Louis-Sébastien Lenormand. ^[136]
• Compressed air vehicle and Pneumatic motor by Andraud and Tessie of Motay in Chaillot on 9 July 1840, ^[137] improved by Louis Mékarski in 1843 in Nantes (see Mekarski system and Compressed air car).
• In air travel :
  • First glider to fly higher than its point of departure, by Jean-Marie Le Bris in 1856. ^[138]
  • First manned, powered, heavier-than-air flight of a significant distance on 9 October 1890, by Clément Ader. ^[139]
  • First aileron, built by Robert Esnault-Pelterie in 1904. ^[140] Modern design of ailerons by Henri Farman. ^[141]
  • First aircraft design with the modern monoplane tractor configuration of aircraft by Louis Bleriot in 1908. ^{[142] [143]}
• Injector by Henri Giffard in 1858 ^[144]
• Internal combustion engine between 1859 and 1861 by Alphonse Beau de Rochas and Belgian-born Étienne Lenoir in Paris.^{[ citation needed ]}
• Submarine  : The first submarine not relying on human power was the French Plongeur (meaning diver), launched in 1863, and using compressed air at 180  psi (1241 kPa). ^[145]
• Bicycle in 1864 by Pierre Michaux and Pierre Lallement (endless power-transmitting chain invented by Jacques de Vaucanson in 1770 and applied to bicycles by J. F. Tretz). ^{[146] [147] [148]}
• Gunpowder powered ornithopter by Gustave Trouvé in 1870 ^[149]
• First manned balloon mail during the Siege of Paris (1871)
• First outboard motorboat by Gustave Trouvé around 1870, ^[150] patented in May 1880 ^[151]
• Inflatable tyres for cars by Édouard Michelin in 1895 ^[152]
• Scooter ^[153] (1902) and Moped.
• V8 engine by Léon Levavasseur in 1902 ^[154]
• Modern automobile Drum brake in 1902 by Louis Renault. ^[155]
• Helicopter  : in 1907, the two first flying helicopters were experimented independently by Louis Breguet ^[156] and Paul Cornu. ^[157]
• Seaplane by Gabriel Voisin in June 1905 (non-autonomous) and by Henri Fabre in 1910 (autonomous : Fabre Hydravion ). ^[158]
• Ramjet by René Lorin in 1913. ^[159]
• The first helicopter to be powered by a gasturbine (Alouette II), in 1955
• Catalytic converter by Eugene Houdry in 1956. ^{[160] [161]}
• Concorde by Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation (1969)
• HDI diesel engine in 1998 by PSA Peugeot Citroën.

Clothing

Polo shirt outline

• Bliaut in the 12th century. ^[162]
• French hood in the early 16th century. ^[163]
• Attifet in the 16th century. ^[164]
• Jacquard loom, a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801, that simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with complex patterns such as brocade, damask, and matelasse. ^{[165] [166]}
• Denim Textile (French town of Nîmes, from which 'denim' de Nîmes gets its name) ^[167]
• Improved, chain stitch, Sewing machine by Barthélemy Thimonnier in 1830. ^[168]
• Modern bra by Herminie Cadolle in 1889. ^[169]
• Little black dress by Coco Chanel in the 1920s, ^{[170] [171]}
• Polo shirt by René Lacoste in 1926. ^{[172] [173] [174] [175]}
• Modern Bikini by Louis Réard in 1946. ^[176]
• classic modern pencil skirt by Christian Dior in the late 1940s. ^{[177] [178]}
• A-line by Yves Saint Laurent in 1958 (term first used in 1955 by Christian Dior). ^[179]
• Modern Raincoat (not to confuse with the older British trench-coat) by Guy Cotten in 1960. ^[180]
• Sweatpants by Émile Camuset, the founder of Le Coq Sportif. ^[181]

Food and cooking

Denis Papin's steam digester

• Steam digester by Denis Papin in 1679. ^[182]
• Cafetiere  : Percolation (method used by Coffee percolator) by Jean-Baptiste de Belloy in 1800 and the French press (another method to make coffee). ^[183]
• Canning (see above in the chemistry section)
• Absorption refrigerator by Ferdinand Carré in 1858. ^[184]
• Margarine by Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès in 1869 ^[185] after the discovery of margaric acid by Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1813. ^[186]
• Clementine in 1902 by Clément Rodier. ^[187]
• Food processor by Pierre Verdun between 1963 and 1971. ^[188]
• Crêpe ^[189] (List of French dishes)
• Coq au vin ^[190]

Baguette

• Champagne ^[191] and other French wines.
• 350 to 400 distinct types of French cheese : List of French cheeses
• Baguette ^[192]
• Cassoulet ^[193]
• Foie gras ^[192]
• Escargot
• Frog legs
• Ratatouille ^[192]
• Camembert by Marie Harel

Weapons and military

Early-19th century socket bayonet

• Bec de corbin, a popular medieval weapon.
• Motte-and-bailey, a form of castle. ^[194]
• The Pot-de-fer, a primitive cannon during the Hundred Years' War. ^[195]
• Culverin, ancestor of the musket. ^[196]
• Flintlock by Marin le Bourgeoys in 1612. ^[197]
• Corvette, a small, maneuverable, lightly armed warship that appeared in the 1670s.
• Bayonet (from French baïonnette) ^[198]
• Modern military uniform in the mid 17th century. ^[199]
• Floating battery, first used during the Great Siege of Gibraltar in September 1782. ^{[200] [201]}
• Mass conscription or Levée en masse during the French Revolution. ^[202]
• Corps by Napoleon in 1805. ^[203]
• Carabine à tige by Louis-Étienne de Thouvenin (improvement of an earlier invention by Henri-Gustave Delvigne) before 1844. ^[204]
• Minié rifle by Claude-Étienne Minié, first reliable (easy to load) muzzle-loading rifle in 1849. ^{[205] [206]} In the artillery, from 1859, the La Hitte rifled guns were a considerable improvement over the previous smooth-bore guns which had been in use, ^[207] able to shoot at 3,000 meters either regulars shells, ball-loaded shells or grapeshot. They appear to have been the first case of usage of rifled cannons on a battlefield. ^[208]
• First naval periscope in 1854 by Hippolyte Marié-Davy. ^{[209] [210] [211] [212]}
• Canne de combat and Savate.
• Épée, the modern derivative of the dueling sword, used for fencing.
• Chassepot by Antoine Alphonse Chassepot in 1866. ^[213]
• Smokeless gunpowder (modern nitrocellulose-based) : Poudre B by Paul Marie Eugène Vieille in 1884. ^{[214] [215]} It was first used to load the Lebel Model 1886 rifle (invented by Nicolas Lebel), making it the first military firearm to use smokeless powder ammunition. It is also the first rifle to use full metal jacket bullets as its standard ammunition.
• First Air force in 1910. ^[216]
• Sonar, first ultrasonic submarine detector using an electrostatic method (and first practical military sonar) in 1916-1917 by Paul Langevin (with Constantin Chilowsky). ^[217]
• Tanks  : developed at the same time (1915–1916) in France and in Great Britain. France was the second country to use tanks on the battlefield (after Great Britain). in 1916, the first practical light tank, the Renault FT with the first full 360° rotation turret became, for armour historian Steven Zaloga "the world's first modern tank". ^[218]

Communication and computers

A Chappe semaphore tower near Saverne, France

Minitel

• Optical Telegraph by Claude Chappe in 1792. ^{[219] [220]}
• Modern pencil by Nicolas-Jacques Conté in 1795. ^[221]
• Paper machine by Louis-Nicolas Robert in 1799. ^[222]
• Fresnel lens by Augustin-Jean Fresnel ^[223]
• Jean-François Champollion first deciphered the Rosetta Stone (1822) : modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs
• Braille in 1825 by Louis Braille, a blind Frenchman: ^[224] first digital form of writing. ^[225]
• Pencil sharpener by Bernard Lassimone in 1828. ^[226] Therry des Estwaux created an improved mechanical sharpener in 1847. ^[226]
• Baudot code by Émile Baudot in 1870 ^[227] and a multiplexed printing telegraph system that used his code and allowed multiple transmissions over a single line. ^[228]
• Coherer by Édouard Branly around 1890. ^{[229] [230] [231]}
• Belinograph (Wirephoto) by Édouard Belin in 1913. ^[232]
• The HSL color space was invented in 1938 by Georges Valensi ^{[233] [234]}
• Bic Cristal in 1949. ^{[235] [236]}
• Bézier curves by Paul de Casteljau in 1959. ^[237]
• Computer-aided manufacturing by Pierre Bézier in 1971 as an engineer at Renault. ^{[238] [239]}
• Micral, earliest commercial, non-kit personal computer based on a microprocessor, by André Truong Trong Thi and François Gernelle in June 1972. ^[240]
• Datagrams and CYCLADES in 1972-1973 by Louis Pouzin (which inspired Bob Kahn and Vinton Cerf when they invented the TCP/IP several years later). ^[241]
• Smart Card by Roland Moreno ^{[242] [243]} in 1974 after the automated chip card.
• Minitel, a dial up, Videotex system, launched in July 1980, and nationally available from 1982. ^[244]
• Camera phone by Philippe Kahn in 1997. ^{[245] [246] [247]}
• Several Programming languages (non-exhaustive list) :
  • Prolog (Logic programming) by a group around Alain Colmerauer in 1972 in Marseille. ^{[248] [249]}
  • LSE, Langage Symbolique d'Enseignement, a French, pedagogical, programming language designed in the 1970s at Supélec. ^[250]
  • Ada (multi-paradigm) by Jean Ichbiah (who also created LIS and Green) in 1980. ^[251]
  • Caml (OCaml by Xavier Leroy, Damien Doligez) developed at INRIA and formerly at ENS since 1985. ^[252]
  • Eiffel (object-oriented) by Bertrand Meyer in 1986. ^[253]
  • STOS BASIC on the Atari ST in 1988 and AMOS BASIC on the Amiga in 1990 by François Lionet and Constantin Sotiropoulos (dialects of BASIC). ^[254]
• Several keyboards  :
  • AZERTY in the last decade of the 19th century. ^{[255] [256]}
  • FITALY by Jean Ichbiah in 1996. ^[257]
  • BÉPO since 2003. ^[258]

Technology

Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville earliest sound recording device.

Sports

The Olympic Rings, the symbol of the modern Olympic Games, inspired by Pierre de Coubertin

Main article: Sport in France

• Jeu de paume, precursor of tennis, in the 12th century.
• The first autonomous diving suit, the precursor to today's scuba gear, is developed by Paul Lemaire d'Augerville in 1824.
• First documented cycling race, a 1,200 metre race held on 31 May 1868, at the Parc of Saint-Cloud, Paris. ^[259] The first cycle race covering a distance between two cities was Paris–Rouen (see History of cycling). ^[260]
• FIFA World Cup by Jules Rimet, FIFA former president.
• UEFA Euro Cup by Henri Delaunay.
• Summer Olympic Games by Pierre de Coubertin.
• International Olympic Committee by Pierre de Coubertin on 23 June 1894. ^[261]
• On 22 July 1894 the newspaper Le Petit Journal organised the world's first competitive motor race from Paris to Rouen. The first finisher was Count Jules-Albert de Dion but his steamer was ineligible, so the 'official' victory was awarded to Albert Lemaître driving his 3 hp petrol engined Peugeot.
• Pétanque in 1907. ^[262]
• Triathlon in the 1920s near Paris (Joinville-le-Pont, Meulan and Poissy). ^[263]
• The Aqua-lung, first Scuba Set (in open-circuit) by Emile Gagnan and Jacques-Yves Cousteau in 1943. ^[264]
• Parkour in the 1980s by the future Yamakasi, especially David Belle. ^{[265] [266]}
• Flyboard in 2012 by Franky Zapata. ^[267] Another version, the Flyboard Air, an air-propelled hoverboard, ^[268] achieved a Guinness World Record for farthest flight by hoverboard in April 2016. ^[269]
• Kitesurf aka flysurf in the 1990s by Manu Bertin and ski mountain derivatives
• Wingsuit in the 1990s by Patrick de Gayardon
• Vendée Globe since 1989 by Philippe Jeantot the first round-the-world single-handed yacht race, sailed non-stop and without assistance
• Paris–Dakar Rally since 1978 by Thierry Sabine
• Trophée Jules Verne since 1985 by Yves Le Cornec the fastest circumnavigation of the world (under 80 days) by any type of sailing yacht with no restrictions on the size of the crew
• 24 Heures du Mans translated 24 Hours Le Mans since 1923 the world's oldest active sports car race in endurance racing
• Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile in 1904; translated as the International Automobile Federation.

Miscellaneous

• Detent escapement by Pierre Le Roy in 1748. ^{[270] [271] [272]}
• Carcel burner in 1800. ^[273]
• developments of battery
  • Dry cell battery by Gaston Planté in 1859 (first practical storage lead-acid battery) ^[274]
  • in 1866, Georges Leclanché patented the carbon-zinc wet cell battery called the Leclanché cell. ^[275]
• Interchangeable parts by Honoré Blanc. ^[276]
• Binoculars (using roof prisms) in 1870 by Achille Victor Emile Daubresse. ^{[277] [278]}
• Artificial Cement by Louis Vicat. ^[279]
• Hairdryer in 1879 by Alexandre Godefroy. ^[280]
• Modern Dry cleaning in 1855 by Jean Baptiste Jolly. ^[281]
• Reinforced concrete by Joseph Monier in 1849 and patented in 1867. ^[282]
• Loppers by Bertrand de Molleville.
• Ball bearing by Jules Suriray, a Parisian bicycle mechanic, on 3 August 1869. ^[283]
• Coronagraph by Bernard Lyot in 1930. ^[284]
• Stapler

See also

• List of Dutch inventions and discoveries
• List of German inventions and discoveries
• List of American inventions and discoveries
• List of Irish inventions and discoveries
• List of Italian inventions
• Scottish inventions and discoveries
• List of Swedish inventions
• List of Welsh inventors
• List of Portuguese inventions and discoveries
• Science in the Middle Ages
• Science in the Age of Enlightenment

References

1. Kimball, Fiske; Edgell, George Harold (1918). A History of Architecture. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. p. 275 – via Google Books.
2. • Burgess, Geoffrey, and Bruce Haynes: 2004, The Oboe, The Yale Musical Instrument Series, New disney world, Connecticut and London: Yale University Press. pp. 27, 28, 102. ISBN   0-300-09317-9
   • Carse, Adam: 1965, Musical Wind Instruments: A History of the Wind Instruments Used in European Orchestras and Wind-Bands from the Later Middle Ages up to the Present Time New York: Da Capo Press. p. 120. ISBN   0-306-80005-5
3. Le Gonidec, Marie-Barbara. "Carte géographique/ map of the origins of different bagpipes". Cornemuses d'Europe et de Méditerranée (in French). Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication/French Ministry of Culture and Communication. Retrieved 27 January 2012.
4. Seeler, Oliver. "The Universe Of Bagpipes" . Retrieved 27 January 2012.
5. "A Brief History of the Metronome". Franz Manufacturing Company, Inc. Archived from the original on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 2 April 2010.
6. Kleiner, Fred (2010). Gardner's art through the ages: the western perspective. Cengage Learning. pp. 583–584. ISBN   978-0-495-57355-5 . Retrieved 21 February 2011.
7. Schiffer, Michael; Hollenback, Kasy; and Bell, Carrie. 2003. Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology In the Age of Enlightenment. University of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-23802-2
8. Roulette Wheel Study, Ron Shelley, (1988)
9. MIT, "Inventor of the Week Archive: Pascal : Mechanical Calculator", May 2003. "Pascal worked on many versions of the devices, leading to his attempt to create a perpetual motion machine. He has been credited with introducing the roulette machine, which was a by-product of these experiments."
10. Parlett, David (1990). The Oxford guide to card games: a historical survey. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-214165-1.
11. Blackjack History
12. "The First Photograph - Heliography". Archived from the original on 6 October 2009. Retrieved 29 September 2009. from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years later.
13. Boris Kossoy (2004). Hercule Florence: El descubrimiento de la fotografía en Brasil. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. ISBN   978-968-03-0020-4.
14. https://coaa.us/index_archive/Issues_21_to_30/Limonaire%20Freres%20Paris_Andrea%20Stadler_%20_26-27-28.pdf ^{[ bare URL PDF ]}
15. "Les frères LIMONAIRE".
16. "La petite musique des orgues Odin". 13 May 2015.
17. Stadler, Andrea (January 2006). "Limonaire Part 1". Carousel Organ. USA.
18. "La passionnante histoire de la famille Limonaire". limonaire.be. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
19. "Life of Guangzhou - Brief Introduction of Automatic Musical Instruments". www.lifeofguangzhou.com. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
20. "The Rise, Blossom and Fall of the Gavioli Factory Part 1. The rise: Ludovico Gavioli 1807-1860 from inventor to organ builder" (PDF). www.coaa.us. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
21. The Poitevin patents and the importance of using primary sources Archived 13 February 2013 at archive.today
22. Vogel, Shane (2000). "WHERE ARE WE NOW?: Queer World Making and Cabaret Performance". GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies. 6 (1): 29–59. doi:10.1215/10642684-6-1-29. S2CID   145261448.
23. "Movements of Air, Etienne-Jules Marey, Photographer of Fluids". Musée d'Orsay. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
24. Rausch, Andrew (2004). Turning Points In Film History. Citadel Press. ISBN   978-0-8065-2592-1.
25. BBC Education - Local Heroes Le Prince Biography, BBC, archived on 28 November 1999
26. Howells, Richard (Summer 2006). "Louis Le Prince: the body of evidence". Screen. 47 (2): 179–200. doi:10.1093/screen/hjl015.
27. Louis Lumiere, The Lumiere Cinematograph. In:Fielding, Raymond (1979). A technological history of motion pictures and television: an anthology from the pages of the Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. University of California Press. pp.  49–51. ISBN   978-0-520-03981-0.
28. "Georges Melies. French Motion Picture Producer a Pioneer in Industry". New York Times . 23 January 1938. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
29. TIMBRELL, Charles. Piano An Encyclopedia, Second Edition.
30. Sadie, Stanley (1980). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. ISBN   978-0-333-60800-5.
31. Elliott, Kelley. "A Brief History of Gemmaux". Corning Museum of Glass. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
32. Martin, Constant (1950). Musique électronique de l'instrument de musique le plus simple aux orgues électroniques, amélioration d'instruments classiques, cloches électroniques, constructions pratiques. Paris: Technique et vulgarisation. p. 202. LCCN   50031038.
33. "Ohio Art - Our Story". Ohio Art. Archived from the original on 17 March 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
34. Rogers, W. Sherman (2009). African American Entrepreneur: Then and Now. ABC-CLIO. p. 221.
35. "Etch A Sketch turns 50: amazing art created with the drawing toy". Telegraph. London. 12 July 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
36. "Etch A Sketch Creator Dies". Gifts & Decorative Accessories Magazine . 31 January 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
37. Allbritton, Chris (30 July 2000). "MOVIE PIRATES ATTACK THE WEB New software reduces the price of a ticket to $0". Daily News . Archived from the original on 29 November 2010.
38. Biography of Charles Marie de la Condamine
39. Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). The Discovery of the Elements. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN   978-0-7661-3872-8.
40. "Lamp." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6Th Edition (2011): 1. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 December 2011.
41. Aftalion, Fred (1991). A History of the International Chemical Industry. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 11–13. ISBN   978-0-8122-1297-6.
42. Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). "XII. Other Elements Isolated with the Aid of Potassium and Sodium: Beryllium, Boron, Silicon and Aluminium". The Discovery of the Elements. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN   978-0-7661-3872-8.
43. Lance Day; Ian McNeil, eds. (1996). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology . Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-19399-3.
44. "The history of PVC". pvc.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
45. Photovoltaic Effect Archived 14 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine . Mrsolar.com. Retrieved on 12 December 2010.
46. The photovoltaic effect Archived 12 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net. Retrieved on 12 December 2010.
47. Hwang, Andy; Huang, Lihan (31 January 2009). Ready-to-Eat Foods: Microbial Concerns and Control Measures. CRC Press. p. 88. ISBN   978-1-4200-6862-7 . Retrieved 19 April 2011.
48. Cailletet, L (July 1885). "The Liquefaction Of Oxygen". Science . 6 (128): 51–52. Bibcode:1885Sci.....6...51C. doi:10.1126/science.ns-6.128.51. PMID   17806947. S2CID   4060793.
49. Time-Life Editors (1991). Inventive Genius. New York: Time-Life Books. p.  52. ISBN   978-0-8094-7699-2.
50. Horzinek MC (1997). "The birth of virology". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 71 (1/2): 15–20. doi:10.1023/A:1000197505492. hdl: 1874/3461 . PMID   9049014. S2CID   28755205.
51. Wallace, D. H. (1977) [1937]. Market Control in the Aluminum Industry (Reprint ed.). Arno Press. p. 6. ISBN   978-0-405-09786-7.
52. Beery Mack, Pauline (February 1929). "Textiles and test tubes. Part II". J. Chem. Educ. 6 (2): 357–359. Bibcode:1929JChEd...6..357M. doi:10.1021/ed006p357.
53. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 149. ISBN   978-0-08-037941-8.
54. Debierne, André-Louis (1899). "Sur un nouvelle matière radio-active". Comptes Rendus (in French). 129: 593–595.
55. Debierne, André-Louis (1900–1901). "Sur un nouvelle matière radio-actif – l'actinium". Comptes Rendus (in French). 130: 906–908.
56. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1912". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 6 October 2008.
57. Xu J. & Mao H. (2000). "Moissanite: A window for high-pressure experiments". Science . 290 (5492): 783–787. Bibcode:2000Sci...290..783X. doi:10.1126/science.290.5492.783. PMID   11052937.
58. Henri Moissan (1904). "Nouvelles recherches sur la météorité de Cañon Diablo". Comptes rendus . 139: 773–786.
59. US 1125476,Georges Claude,"Systems of Illuminating by Luminescent Tubes",issued 1915-01-19  See reproduction of patent.
60. Jean Marguin (1994), p. 48
61. Grinstead, Charles Miller; James Laurie Snell. "Introduction". Introduction to Probability. pp. vii.
62. Daumas, Maurice, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers, Portman Books, London 1989 ISBN   978-0-7134-0727-3
63. Martin, William Robert (1911). "Navigation"  . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 289.
64. Turner, Anthony J. Melchisédech Thévenot, the bubble level, and the artificial horizon. Nuncius: annali di storia della scienza 7, no. 1 (1992): 131-145.
65. "The Roberval Balance". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
66. Simons, Paul (17 October 2007). "How Reaumur fell off the temperature scale". The Times . Retrieved 10 March 2008.^{[ dead link ]}
67. Pitot, Henri (1732). "Description d'une machine pour mesurer la vitesse des eaux courantes et le sillage des vaisseaux" (PDF). Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique Tirés des Registres de Cette Académie: 363–376. Retrieved 19 June 2009.
68. Darcy, Henry (1858). "Note relative à quelques modifications à introduire dans le tube de Pitot" (PDF). Annales des Ponts et Chaussées: 351–359. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
69. Dutka, Jacques (1991), "The early history of the factorial function", Archive for History of Exact Sciences , 43 (3): 225–249, doi:10.1007/BF00389433, S2CID   122237769
70. Le Cam, L. (1986), "The central limit theorem around 1935", Statistical Science, 1 (1): 78–96 [p. 81], doi: 10.1214/ss/1177013818 , The result, obtained using a formula originally proved by de Moivre but now called Stirling's formula, occurs in his `Doctrine of Chances' of 1733..
71. Pearson, Karl (1924), "Historical note on the origin of the normal curve of errors", Biometrika, 16 (3/4): 402–404 [p. 403], doi:10.2307/2331714, JSTOR   2331714, I consider that the fact that Stirling showed that De Moivre's arithmetical constant was √2π does not entitle him to claim the theorem, [...]
72. Schwinger, Julian (1986). Einstein's Legacy. New York: Scientific American Library. pp.  93. ISBN   978-0-7167-5011-6.
73. Dorin, Henry (1982). Socolof, Fred (ed.). Chemistry, the study of matter. Fairfield, N.J.: Cebco Standard Pub. ISBN   9780205097005.
74. Adler, Ken (2002). The Measure of all Things - The Seven-Year-Odyssey that Transformed the World. London: Abacus. ISBN   978-0-349-11507-8. - Prologue, p 1
75. "La loi du 18 Germinal an 3 " la mesure [républicaine] de superficie pour les terrains, égale à un carré de dix mètres de côté "" [The law of 18 Germanial year 3 "The republican measures of land area equal to a square with sides of ten metres"] (in French). Le CIV (Centre d'Instruction de Vilgénis) - Forum des Anciens. Retrieved 2 March 2010.
76. Rouse Ball, W. W. [1908] (2003) "Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827)", in A Short Account of the History of Mathematics, 4th ed., Dover, ISBN   0-486-20630-0
77. Hellemans, Alexander; Bunch, Bryan (1988). The Timetables of Science. Simon & Schuster. p. 261. ISBN   0671621300.
78. Chase G.C.: History of Mechanical Computing Machinery, Vol. 2, Number 3, July 1980, page 204, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
79. Bradley, Margaret. A career biography of Gaspard Clair Francois Marie Riche De Prony, bridge-builder, educator, and scientist. Mellen Press. 1998.
80. Fourier, Joseph (1822). Théorie analytique de la chaleur (in French). Paris: Firmin Didot Père et Fils. OCLC   2688081.
81. • Chiles, James (Winter 2009). "The Other Renewable Energy". Invention and Technology. 23 (4): 24–35.
    • Takahashi, Masayuki Mac (2000) [1991]. Deep Ocean Water as Our Next Natural Resource. Translated by Kitazawa, Kazuhiro; Snowden, Paul. Tokyo, Japan: Terra Scientific Publishing Company. ISBN   978-4-88704-125-7. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
82. Henri Becquerel - Biography on the nobel prize website
83. Darrigol, Olivier (2005). "The Genesis of the theory of relativity" (PDF). Einstein, 1905–2005 (presented at Poincaré Seminars (2005)). Vol. 1. pp. 1–22. doi:10.1007/3-7643-7436-5_1 (inactive 31 October 2024). ISBN   978-3-7643-7435-8.
84. Translation of Lippmann's 1908 article (This crude English translation will be more comprehensible if the reader bears in mind that "dark room" and "darkroom" are the translator's mistaken renderings of "chambre noire", the French equivalent of the Latin "camera obscura", and should be read as "camera" in the thirteen places where this error occurs.)
85. • academie-sciences.fr Archived 15 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine
    • US patent 1,835,018
86. Taylor, Nick (2000). LASER: The inventor, the Nobel laureate, and the thirty-year patent war. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN   978-0-684-83515-0. Page 56.
87. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1992". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 9 October 2008.
88. Darwin, Charles (2001). Appleman, Philip (ed.). Darwin: Texts, Commentary. Norton critical editions in the history of ideas (3rd ed.). Norton. p. 44. ISBN   978-0-393-95849-2.
89. Haig, David (2007). "Weismann Rules! OK? Epigenetics and the Lamarckian temptation". Biology and Philosophy. 22 (3): 415–428. doi:10.1007/s10539-006-9033-y. S2CID   16322990.
90. Paget, Stephen (1897). Ambroise Paré and His Times, 1510–1590 (Illustrated ed.). New York & London: G.P. Putnam's sons.
91. "The First Blood Transfusion?". Heart-valve-surgery.com. 3 January 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
92. de Vaux, Jean Claude. "The Pierre Fauchard Academy". Archived from the original on 13 December 2000. Retrieved 22 July 2006.
93. "Dentistry practice in Spain and France during the 18th century" (in Spanish). The free info's corner. 3 February 2000. p. 1. Retrieved 22 July 2006.
94. L’Abbé Nollet (June 1748) "Recherches sur les causes du bouillonnement des liquides" (Researches on the causes of the boiling of liquids) Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique, tirés des registres de l’Académie Royale des Sciences de l’année 1748, pp. 57–104; especially pp. 101–103. The Mémoires (1748) were printed in: Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences Année 1748, which was published in 1752 and which contains a condensed version of Nollet's article on pages 10–19.
    

    Original text : Avant que de finir ce Mémoire, je crois devoir rendre compte d'un fait que je dois au hasard, & qui me parut d'abord ... singulier ... j'en avois rempli une fiole cylindrique, longue de cinq pouces, & d'un pouce de diamètre ou environ ; & l'ayant couverte d'un morceau de vessie mouillée & ficelée au col du vaisseau, je l'avois plongée dans un grand vase plein d'eau, afin d'être sûr qu'il ne rentrât aucun air dans l'esprit de vin. Au bout de cinq ou six heures, je fus tout surpris de voir que la fiole étoit plus pleine qu'au moment de son immersion, quoiqu'elle le fût alors autant que ses bords pouvoient le permettre ; la vessie qui lui servoit de bouchon, étoit devenue convexe & si tendue, qu’en la piquant avec une épingle, il en sortit un jet de liqueur qui s'éleva à plus d'un pied de hauteur.

    Translation : Before finishing this memoir, I think I should report an event that I owe to chance and which at first seemed to me ... strange ... I filled [with alcohol] a cylindrical vial, five inches long and about one inch in diameter; and [after] having covered it with piece of damp bladder [which was] tied to the neck of the vial, I immersed it in a large bowl full of water, in order to be sure that no air re-entered the alcohol. At the end of 5 or 6 hours, I was very surprised to see that the vial was fuller than at the moment of its immersion, although it [had been filled] as far as its sides would allow ; the bladder that served as its cap, bulged and had become so stretched that on pricking it with a needle, there came from it a jet of alcohol that rose more than a foot high.

95. • Angélique du Coudray at the Dinner Party database, Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved 24 October 2007.
    • Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology By Autumn Stanley, Page 234. Published 1995, Rutgers University Press. (at Google books)
    • The King's Midwife : A History and Mystery of Madame du Coudray, by Nina Rattner Gelbart, Berkeley : University of California Press, (1998). ISBN   0-520-21036-0 (At Worldcat)
96. Laennec, René (1819). De l'auscultation médiate ou traité du diagnostic des maladies des poumon et du coeur. Paris: Brosson & Chaudé.
97. Kyle R, Shampe M (1974). "Discoverers of quinine". JAMA. 229 (4): 462. doi:10.1001/jama.229.4.462. PMID   4600403.
98. (in French) La codéine  : Pierre ROBIQUET (1780–1840)
99. Gerhardt C (1853). "Untersuchungen über die wasserfreien organischen Säuren". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie (in German). 87: 149–179. doi:10.1002/jlac.18530870107.
100. "General Anaesthesia website". General-anaesthesia.com. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
101. Daston, Lorraine. "Scientific Error and the Ethos of Belief". Social Research. 72 (Spring 2005): 18.
102. "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1907". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.
103. Cox FE (2010). "History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors" (PDF). Parasites & Vectors. 3 (1): 5. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-3-5 . PMC   2825508 . PMID   20205846.
104. Baker, J. P. (2000). "The incubator and the medical discovery of the premature infant". Journal of Perinatology. 20 (5): 321–328. doi: 10.1038/sj.jp.7200377 . PMID   10920793.
105. Dunn, P. M. (1995). "Professor Pierre Budin (1846-1907) of Paris, and modern perinatal care". Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 73 (3): F193–F195. doi:10.1136/fn.73.3.F193. PMC   2528458 . PMID   8535881.
106. "Neonatology on the Web: Pierre Budin - the Nursling".
107. Pasteur L, Ernst HC (1880) [May 1880]. "(translated from French)" [On the extension of the germ theory to the etiology of certain common diseases]. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences. Vol. XC. pp. 1033–44. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
108. Geison GL (1978). "Pasteur's work on rabies: Reexamining the ethical issues diagnosis for developing countries". Hastings Center Report. 8 (April): 26–. doi:10.2307/3560403. JSTOR   3560403. PMID   348641.
109. Foster W, Raoult A (December 1974). "Early descriptions of antibiosis". J R Coll Gen Pract. 24 (149): 889–94. PMC   2157443 . PMID   4618289.
110. B.G. Firkin & J.A.Whitworth (1987). Dictionary of Medical Eponyms. Parthenon Publishing. ISBN   1-85070-333-7
111. Intradermo-reaction de la tuberculine. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences, Paris, 1908, 147, 355-357
112. Bonah C (2005). "The 'experimental stable' of the BCG vaccine: safety, efficacy, proof, and standards, 1921–1933". Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci. 36 (4): 696–721. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.09.003. PMID   16337557.
113. • Healy, D. 2005. Psychiatric Drugs Explained. 4th Ed. Britain:Elsevier Limited. P. 8, 17.
     • Healy, David (2004). "Explorations in a new world". The creation of psychopharmacology. Harvard University Press. p. 77. ISBN   978-0-674-01599-9.
     • López-Muñoz, Francisco; Alamo, Cecilio; Cuenca, Eduardo; Shen, Winston W.; Clervoy, Patrick; Rubio, Gabriel (2005). "History of the discovery and clinical introduction of chlorpromazine". Annals of Clinical Psychiatry. 17 (3): 113–35. doi:10.1080/10401230591002002. PMID   16433053.
114. Lejeune, J; Gautier, M; Turpin, R (1959). "Etude des chromosomes somatiques de neuf enfants mongoliens". Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences. 248 (11): 1721–22.
115. "1958-01-01" . Retrieved 2 January 2011.
116. Vinca reactor accident, 1958, compiled by Wm. Robert Johnston
117. Nuove esplosioni a Fukushima: danni al nocciolo. Ue: "In Giappone l’apocalisse", 14 marzo 2011
118. Martin, Douglas (20 October 2010). "Dr. Georges Mathé, Transplant Pioneer, Dies at 88". New York Times.
119. (in French) Les lauréats des 7èmes Victoires de la Médecine Archived 10 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine sur le site Les victoires de la Médecine 2008.
120. "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 6 October 2008.
121. Williams, Ruth (December 2010). "Alim-Louis Benabid: stimulation and serendipity". The Lancet. 9 (12): 1152. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70291-X. PMID   21087740. S2CID   32024100 . Retrieved 14 July 2016.
122. Herpich, Nate (28 May 2013). "Robert A. Pritzker Prize Winner's 'Serendipitous Discovery' Leads to Improved Lives for Many with Parkinson's". The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
123. Michael Balter (6 October 2000). "Profile. For "Father" of Abortion Drug, Vindication at Last". Science. 290 (5489): 39. doi:10.1126/science.290.5489.39. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   11183145. S2CID   43134849.
124. Etienne-Emile Baulieu: monsieur «longue vie» dans Le Monde du 17 août 2007.
125. Lanzetta M, Petruzzo P, Dubernard JM, et al. (July 2007). "Second report (1998-2006) of the International Registry of Hand and Composite Tissue Transplantation". Transpl Immunol. 18 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.trim.2007.03.002. PMID   17584595.
126. Ghodoussi, Dr. "Media Collection". Interface Surgical Technologies, LLC. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
127. Austin, Naomi (17 October 2006). "My face transplant saved me". BBC News. Retrieved 25 November 2007.
128. BBC News - Woman has first face transplant
129. "Laureates: Emmanuelle Charpentier". breakthroughprize.org. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
130. Web-page (in French) at http://www.herodote.net/histoire/evenement.php?jour=18260810 (retrieved 13 June 2008)
131. D.L. Hobman, "Cromwell's Master Spy - A study of John Thurloe." , Chapman & Hall 1961 page 27.
132. "1679-1681 – R P Verbiest's Steam Chariot". History of the Automobile: origin to 1900. Hergé . Retrieved 8 May 2009.
133. Setright, L. J. K. (2004). Drive On!: A Social History of the Motor Car. Granta Books. ISBN   978-1-86207-698-3.
134. Tom D. Crouch (2009). Lighter Than Air. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   978-0-8018-9127-4.
135. "U.S. Centennial of Flight Commisstion: Early Balloon Flight in Europe". Archived from the original on 2 June 2008. Retrieved 4 June 2008.
136. Lynn White, Jr.: "The Invention of the Parachute", Technology and Culture 9(3), 462-467 (1968). JSTOR
137. The History of compressed air vehicles. (n.d.). Retrieved from "Air Car Factories - the History of Compressed Air Vehicles". Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
138. "Biography of Jean-Marie Le Bris" . Retrieved 5 May 2011.
139. • Clement Ader on Britannica
     • Carroll Gray, "Clement Ader 1841 - 1925"
     • Eole/Clément Ader" Archived 20 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine on the website of European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company EADS N.V.
140. Ransom, Sylvia & Jeff, James. World Power Archived 7 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine , Bibb County School District, Georgia. April 2002.
141. Origins of Control Surfaces, Aerospaceweb
142. Crouch, Tom (1982). Bleriot XI, The Story of a Classic Aircraft. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 21 & 22. ISBN   978-0-87474-345-6.
143. transportationhistory.suite101.com/article.cfm/louis_bleriot Transportation History at Suite101.com. Retrieved 12 March 2008.
144. Strickland L. Kneass (1894). Practice and Theory of the Injector. John Wiley & Sons (Reprinted by Kessinger Publications, 2007 ). ISBN   978-0-548-47587-4.
145. John Pike. "Globalsecurity". Globalsecurity. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
146. Michauline
147. Pryor Dodge The Bicycle 1996 (French ed 1996, German eds 1997, 2002, 2007)
148. New York Times: Melinda Tuhis, "Bragging Rights to the Bicycle, All Thanks to a Frenchman," August 2, 1998, accessed 18 July 2010
149. "Unmanned Ornithopters". About Ornithopters. Ornithopter Zone. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
150. Olsson, Kent. "THE OUTBOARD MOTORS". Säffle Marinmotor Museum. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
151. Desmond, Kevin. "A Brief History of Electric Water Speed Records". electric record team. Archived from the original on 7 September 2008. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
152. "history of Michelin". Official website of Michelin. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
153. "ScooterManiac - Auto-Fauteuil". ScooterManiac. Florian Jacquet, webmaster. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
154. "Autoblog: New Cars, Used Cars for Sale, Car Reviews and News". 2 December 2013.
155. Constable, Georges (2003). A century of innovation: twenty engineering achievements that transformed our lives. Joseph Henry Press. p. 22. ISBN   978-0-309-08908-1.
156. Munson, Kenneth. Helicopters and other Rotorcraft since 1907. London: Blandford Publishing, 1968. ISBN   978-0-7137-0493-8
157. Leishman, Dr. J. Gordon, Technical Fellow of AHS International. "Paper." Archived 1 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine 64th Annual Forum of the American Helicopter Society International, on the aerodynamic capability of Cornu's design
158. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft (Part Work 1982-1985), 1985, Orbis Publishing
159. Zucker, Robert D.; Oscar Biblarz (2002). Fundamentals of gas dynamics. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN   978-0-471-05967-7.
160. Csere, Csaba (January 1988). "10 Best Engineering Breakthroughs". Car and Driver . 33 (7): 63.
161. "His Smoke Eating Cats Now Attack Traffic Smog." Popular Science, June 1955, pp. 83-85/244.
162. Boucher, François. 20,000 Years of Fashion: The History of Costume and Personal Adornment, Harry Abrams, 1966, pp. 164–172
163. Ashelford, Jane. The Visual History of Costume: The Sixteenth Century. 1983 edition ( ISBN   0-89676-076-6), 1994 reprint ( ISBN   0-7134-6828-9).
164. Condra, Jill (2007). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History: 1501-1800. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 75. ISBN   978-0-313-33664-5.
165. Eric Hobsbawm, "The Age of Revolution", (London 1962; repr. 2008), p.45.
166. "Fabric Glossary". Archived from the original on 5 January 2009. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
167. Bellis, Mary. "Levi Strauss - The History of Blue Jeans". About.com. The New York Times Company. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 4 August 2010. "Levi Strauss had the canvas made into waist overalls. Miners liked the pants, but complained that they tended to chafe. Levi Strauss substituted a twilled cotton cloth from France called "serge de Nimes." The fabric later became known as denim and the pants were nicknamed blue jeans." In French of Nimes or De Nimes shortened to Denim
168. "Barthelemy Thimonnier". Sewing Machines from the Past to the Present. Retrieved 11 April 2005.
169. Pechter E. A new method for determining bra size and predicting postaugmentation breast size. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 102 (4) September 1998, 1259–1265 : According to Life magazine, in 1889 Herminie Cadolle of France invented the first modern bra.
170. Steele, Valerie (1988). Paris Fashion: A Cultural History. Oxford University Press. pp.  246–248. ISBN   978-0-19-504465-2.
171. The History of the Perfect Little Black Dress Archived 5 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Everything you want to know about Coco Chanel's designs in the 1920s.
172. Fashion Encyclopedia, "Lacoste Sportswear" (2007).
173. The Story of Lacoste. Retrieved from "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 January 2006. Retrieved 5 May 2011..
174. Style & Design: Lacoste. Time Magazine, Winter 2004. Retrieved from .
175. The Brand Channel, Lacoste profile Archived 26 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine .
176. "The Bikini: One Of Man's Greatest Inventions". CBS News. 2 July 2006. Archived from the original on 4 July 2006. Retrieved 17 September 2008.
177. Brulin, Diana (19 February 2009). "Drafting the pencil skirt look". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 10 February 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
178. Sun, Florence (19 November 2004). "Sharpen up with pencil skirts". News Guangdong.
179. Ward, Susan (2005). "A-Line dress". In Steele, Valerie (ed.). Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion. Thomson Gale. pp.  35–36. ISBN   978-0-684-31394-8.
180. (in French)Élodie Baërd, «  Guy Cotten, à l'épreuve du temps Archived 19 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine  », Figaro madame, 4 août 2008
181. "The Cultural History of Sweatpants". MEL Magazine. 24 November 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
182. Papin’s steam digester, Science and Society – Picture Library.
183. "History of the Cafetiere by James Grierson". Gallacoffee.co.uk. Archived from the original on 6 January 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2009.
184. Eric Granryd & Björn Palm, Refrigerating engineering, Stockholm Royal Institute of Technology, 2005, see chap. 4-3
185. C.G. Lehmann, Lehrbuch der physiologischen Chemie, Verlag Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig (1853) p71.
186. Baker Christopher G.J; Ranken H.D; Kill R.C., eds. (1997). Food industries manual. Vol. 24th Edition. Springer. pp. 285–289. ISBN   978-0-7514-0404-3 . Retrieved 13 November 2009.
187. "The Spiritan Connection to the Clementine Fruit". Center for Spiritan Studies. Duquesne University. 2007. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2010.
188. A. ZELDES, Leah (1 February 2011). "The food processor at 40". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
189. "Famous French Food". Classic French Food. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
190. Zeldes, Leah A. (18 November 2009). "Eat this! Coq au vin, savory French fare for cool weather". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc. Retrieved 18 November 2009.
191. J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 150–153 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN   0-19-860990-6
192. Steele, Ross. The French Way. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.
193. Zeldes, Leah A. (13 January 2009). "Eat this! Cassoulet, a hearty winter casserole from Southwestern France". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc. Archived from the original on 17 February 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2009.
194. • Kaufmann, J. E. and H. W. Kaufmann. (2004) The Medieval Fortress: castles, forts and walled cities of the Middle Ages. ^{[ permanent dead link ]} Cambridge, US: Da Capo, p.33. ISBN   978-0-306-81358-0.
     • Nicolle, David. (1984) The Age of Charlemagne. ^{[ permanent dead link ]} Oxford: Osprey, p.109. ISBN   978-0-85045-042-2.
195. Tunis, Edwin (1999). Weapons: A Pictorial History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   978-0-8018-6229-8.
196. (in French)[www.etudes-touloises.com/articles/105/art7.pdf L'art de la guerre au XVIe siècle], Pascal THIEBAUT.
197. "Pistols: An Illustrated History of Their Impact" By Jeff Kinard, Published by ABC-CLIO, 2004
198. H. Blackmore, Hunting Weapons, pg 50
199. Atkinson, Charles Francis (1911). "Uniforms"  . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 582–593.
200. Monti, Ángel María (1852). Historia de Gibraltar: Dedicada a SS. AA. RR., los serenisimos señores Infantes Duques de Montpensier. Imp. Juan Moyano. p. 216.
201. Chartrand, René; Courcelle, Patrice (2006). Gibraltar 1779 - 1783 : the great siege ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Oxford: Osprey. ISBN   9781841769776.
202. "Conscription". Archived from the original on 28 October 2009.
203. Archer, Christon I.; John R. Ferris; Holger H. Herwig (2002). World History of Warfare. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN   978-0-8032-4423-8. p.397
204. Rifles by David Westwood p.23
205. Division of the History of Technology, Division of the History of Technology. "The lead minie ball". Civil War. National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
206. Nosworthy, Brent (2003). The bloody crucible of courage : fighting methods and combat experience of the Civil War (1. Carroll & Graf ed.). New York: Carroll & Graf. p. 752. ISBN   978-0786711475.
207. French Army 1870-71 Franco-Prussian War (1) by Stephen Shann p.37
208. The Long Arm of Lee by Jennings Cropper Wise, Gary W. Gallagher p.30
209. Roscoe, Theodore (1984). United States submarine operations in World War II. Fred Freeman (illust.) (13th print ed.). Annapolis: United States Naval Institute. ISBN   978-0870217319.
210. Farwell, Byron (2001). The encyclopedia of nineteenth-century land warfare : an illustrated world view (1. ed.). New York [u.a.]: Norton. p. 900. ISBN   978-0393047707.
211. The Submarine Torpedo Boat, Its Characteristics and Modern Development by Allen Hoar p.93
212. Hovgaard, William (1971). Modern history of warships : comprising a discussion of present standpoint and recent war experiences for the use of students of naval construction, naval constructors, naval officers and others interested in naval matters (New impr. ed.). London (7 Nelson Rd, S.E.10): Conway Maritime Press Ltd. p. 502. ISBN   9780851770406.
213. John Walter (2006). Rifles of the World (3 ed.). Iola: Krause Publications. p. 86. ISBN   978-0-89689-241-5.
214. Médard, Louis (1994). "L'œuvre scientifique de Paul Vieille (1854-1934) (The scientific work of Paul Vieille (1854-1934) )". Revue d'Histoire des Sciences (in French). 47 (3–4): 381–404. doi:10.3406/rhs.1994.1211.
215. Davis, Tenny L. The Chemistry of Powder & Explosives (1943) pages 289–292
216. "France: Air Force (Armée de l'Air), in Christopher H. Sterling, Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st century (ABC-CLIO, 2008) p168
217. Manbachi, A.; Cobbold, R. S. C. (2011). "Development and application of piezoelectric materials for ultrasound generation and detection". Ultrasound. 19 (4): 187. doi:10.1258/ult.2011.011027. S2CID   56655834.
218. Steven J. Zaloga, The Renault FT Light Tank, London 1988, p. 3
219. Beyer, Rick, The Greatest Stories Never Told, A&E Television Networks / The History Channel, ISBN   0-06-001401-6 p. 60
220. French source: Tour du télégraphe Chappe Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
221. (in French)L.-Séb. Le Normand et J.-G.-V. de Moléon, Annales de l'industrie nationale et étrangère, ou Mercure technologique, Bachelier, Paris, 1821
222. Larousse Encyclopaedia - les frères Robert, Mécaniciens français.
223. Lighthouses, Illuminants, Lenses Engineering and Augustin Fresnel, An Historical Bibliography, United States Coast Guard.
224. Roy, Noëlle. "Louis Braille 1809-1852, a French genius" (PDF). Valentin Haüy Association Website. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2010. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
225. Peter Daniels, 1996, "Analog and Digital Writing", in The World's Writing Systems, p 886
226. "20 Things You Didn't Know About... Pencils", Discover magazine , May 2007, retrieved 30 April 2009
227. Anthony Ralston and Edwin D. Reilly (ed.), Encyclopedia of Computer Science Third Edition, IEEE Press/Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York 1993, ISBN   0-442-27679-6 Baudot Code
228. Froehlich, E.; Allen Kent (1991). The Froehlich/Kent encyclopedia of telecommunications: Volume 2. CRC Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN   978-0-8247-2901-1.
229. Variations of Conductivity under Electrical Influences, By Edouard Branly. Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 103 By Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain) Page 481 (Contained in, Comptes rendus de I'Acade'mie des Sciences, Paris, vol. cii., 1890, p. 78.)
230. On the Changes in Resistance of Bodies under Different Electrical Conditions. By E. Branly. Minutes of proceedings, Volume 104 By Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain). 1891. Page 416 (Contained in, Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris, 1891, vol. exit., p. 90.)
231. Experiments on the conductivity of insulating bodies, By M. Edouard Branly, M.D. Philosophical magazine. Taylor & Francis., 1892. Page 530 (Contained in, Comptes Rendus de l' Academic des Sciences, 24 November 1890 and 12 January 1891, also, Bulletin de la Societi internationals d'electriciens, no. 78, May 1891)
232. McFarlane, Maynard D., Maynard D. (August 1980). "A Historical Look at Facsimile". IEEE Transactions on Education. 23 (3): 151–156. Bibcode:1980ITEdu..23..151M. doi:10.1109/TE.1980.4321400. S2CID   20825017.
233. FRpatent 841335,Valensi, Georges,"Procédé de télévision en couleurs",published 1939-05-17,issued 1939-02-06 
234. USpatent 2375966,Valensi, Georges,"System of television in colors",published 1945-05-15 
235. Phaidon Design Classics- Volume 2, 2006 Phaidon Press Ltd. ISBN   0-7148-4399-7
236. Humble Masterpieces - The Museum of Modern Art New York, 8 April – 27 September 2004.
237. Gerald E. Farin; Josef Hoschek; Myung-Soo Kim (2002). Handbook of Computer Aided Geometric Design. Elsevier. pp. 4–6. ISBN   978-0-444-51104-1.
238. <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (November 1990). "Dead: Pierre Bezier". Computer-Aided Design. 22 (9). Retrieved 10 February 2012.
239. "The Pierre Bézier Award". Solid Modeling Association (SMA). Archived from the original on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
240. • "Timeline of Computer History". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 10 January 2010.
     • Roy A. Allan A History of the Personal Computer (Alan Publishing, 2001) ISBN   0-9689108-0-7 Chapter 4 (PDF: https://archive.org/download/A_History_of_the_Personal_Computer/eBook04.pdf)
241. "A small biography of Louis Pouzin" . Retrieved 9 June 2011.
242. "Search Results: Roland moreno". Archived from the original on 6 November 2015. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
243. "Monticello Memoirs Program". Computerworld honors. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
244. "Minitel lives on". Radio France Internationale. 11 February 2009. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
245. Parks, Bob (October 2000). "Wired Magazine, The Big Picture - Philippe Kahn". Wired. Retrieved 20 April 2006.
246. Maney, Kevin (23 January 2007). "Baby's birth foretells "birth" of the cell phone camera — and societal evolution". USA Today . Retrieved 25 December 2007.
247. Robert Sullivan (2011). 100 Photographs That Changed The World. LIFE Books. p. 19. ISBN   978-1-60320-176-6.
248. Kowalski, R. A. (1988). "The early years of logic programming" (PDF). Communications of the ACM. 31: 38. doi:10.1145/35043.35046. S2CID   12259230.
249. Colmerauer, A.; Roussel, P. (1993). "The birth of Prolog" (PDF). ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 28 (3): 37. doi:10.1145/155360.155362.
250. 99 Bottles program written in LSE
251. "Ada 83 designer Jean Ichbiah dies", Ada-Europe, 2007, webpage: AdaE-Jobit Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine .
252. Official website Caml language family
253. Object-Oriented Software Construction, Second Edition, by Bertrand Meyer, Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN   0-13-629155-4
254. "information". Clickteam. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
255. Martin, Henri-Jean (1995). The history and power of writing. University of Chicago Press. p. 608. ISBN   978-0-226-50836-8.
256. Gardey, Delphine (1998). "La standardisation d'une pratique technique: la dactylographie (1883-1930)". Réseaux. 16 (87): 75–103. doi:10.3406/reso.1998.3163.
257. USpatent 5487616,Jean D. Ichbiah,"Method for designing an ergonomic one-finger keyboard and apparatus therefor",issued 1996-01-30 
258. "Catégorie:Version". Different versions. Bépo community. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
259. Maso, B. (tr. Horn, M.) (2005), The Sweat of the Gods, Mousehold Press, pp. 1-2, ISBN   1-874739-37-4
260. Paris-Rouen 1869 Archived 4 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
261. Pierre de Coubertin. The Olympic Idea. Discourses and Essays. Editions Internationales Olympiques, Lausanne, 1970.
262. Marco Foyot, Alain Dupuy, Louis Almas, Pétanque - Technique, Tactique, Etrainement. Robert Laffont, 1984.
263. "ESPN – Triathlon milestones". ESPN. Archived from the original on 12 August 2008. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
264. "Year by Year 1943" -- History Channel International
265. Ortuzar, Jimena (1 September 2009). "Parkour : A Kinetic Urban Utopia". TDR/The Drama Review. 53 (3): 54–66. doi:10.1162/dram.2009.53.3.54. S2CID   57563745.
266. Pratt, Murray (2011). "Displacement at the movies: PARKOUR and plurality in France and beyond". Contemporary French Civilization. 33 (2): 63–75. doi:10.3828/cfc.2009.16 . Retrieved 15 November 2011.
267. Zapata's outrageous, US$6,600 Flyboard - Aquaman meets Iron Man, gizmag.com. Retrieved: 14 July 2016.
268. Flyboard Air: Franky Zapata develops his own jet-powered flying hoverboard that actually works, International Business Times. Retrieved: 14 July 2016.
269. Lynch, Kevin (30 April 2016). "Confirmed: Franky Zapata sets new Farthest hoverboard flight record in France". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
270. Britten's Watch & Clock Makers' Handbook Dictionary & Guide Fifteenth Edition p.122
271. A Journal of natural philosophy, chemistry and the arts p.159
272. Encyclopedia of time Samuel L. Macey p.348
273. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Photometry"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 526.
274. Dell, Ronald; Rand, David A.J. (2001): Understanding Batteries. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN   0-85404-605-4
275. Practical Electricity by W. E. Ayrton and T. Mather, published by Cassell and Company, London, 1911, pp 188-193
276. Althin, Torsten K.W. (1948). C.E. Johansson, 1864–1943: The Master of Measurement. Stockholm: Ab. C.E. Johansson [C.E. Johansson corporation]. LCCN   74219452. p.41
277. "groups.google.co.ke". Archived from the original on 30 July 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
278. photodigital.net  — rec.photo.equipment.misc Discussion: Achille Victor Emile Daubresse, forgotten prism inventor
279. • (in French)Guy Coriono, 250 ans de l'École des Ponts et Chaussées en cent portraits, Presses de l'école nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, 1997, 222 p. ISBN   2-85978-271-0
     • (in French)Antoine Picon, L'art de l'Ingénieur. Constructeur, entrepreneur, inventeur, éditions du Centre Pompidou, Paris, 1997, 598 p. ISBN   2-85850-911-5
280. Willett, Julie (2010). The American Beauty Industry Encyclopedia. Greenwood.
281. Gupta, Seema (2005). Origin Of 101 Everyday Things. Pustak Mahal. pp. 59–61. ISBN   978-81-223-0909-6.
282. Bellis, Mary. "The History of Concrete and Cement". About.com. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
283. Bicycle History, Chronology of the Growth of Bicycling and the Development of Bicycle Technology by David Mozer
284. "Henry Draper Medal". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2011.