Timeline of United States discoveries

Last updated

The rivalry between Othniel Charles Marsh (left) and Edward Drinker Cope (right) sparked the "Bone Wars." Othniel Charles Marsh & Edward Drinker Cope bw.jpg
The rivalry between Othniel Charles Marsh (left) and Edward Drinker Cope (right) sparked the "Bone Wars."

Timeline of United States discoveries encompasses the breakthroughs of human thought and knowledge of new scientific findings, phenomena, places, things, and what was previously unknown to exist. From a historical standpoint, the timeline below of United States discoveries dates from the 18th century to the current 21st century, which have been achieved by discoverers who are either native-born or naturalized citizens of the United States.

Contents

With an emphasis of discoveries in the fields of astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine, biology, geology, paleontology, and archaeology, United States citizens acclaimed in their professions have contributed much. For example, the "Bone Wars," beginning in 1877 and ending in 1892, was an intense period of rivalry between two American paleontologists, Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh, who initiated several expeditions throughout North America in the pursuit of discovering, identifying, and finding new species of dinosaur fossils. In total, their large efforts resulted in when 142 species of dinosaurs being discovered. [1] With the founding of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958, a vision and continued commitment by the United States of finding extraterrestrial and astronomical discoveries has helped the world to better understand the Solar System and universe. As one example, in 2008, the Phoenix lander discovered the presence of frozen water on the planet Mars of which scientists such as Peter H. Smith of the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory (LPL) had suspected before the mission confirmed its existence. [2]

Eighteenth century

1747 Charge conservation

1796 Johnston Atoll

1798 Tabuaeran

1798 Teraina

1798 Palmyra Atoll

Palmyra Atoll's North Beach. PalmyraNorthBeach.jpg
Palmyra Atoll's North Beach.

Palmyra Atoll, a territory of the United States, a Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, and a part of the wider United States Minor Outlying Islands, is a 4.6 sq mi (12 km2) atoll located in the North Pacific Ocean almost due south of the Hawaiian Islands, roughly halfway between the U.S. state of Hawaii and the U.S. territory of American Samoa. The atoll consists of an extensive reef, two shallow lagoons, and some 50 sand and reef-rock islets and bars covered with lush, tropical vegetation. The islets of the atoll are all connected, except Sand Island and the two Home Islets in the west and Barren Island in the east. The largest island is Cooper Island in the north, followed by Kaula Island in the south. Cooper Island is privately owned by The Nature Conservancy and managed as a nature reserve. The rest of the atoll is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and is directly administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, an agency of the United States Department of Interior. Palmyra Atoll's history is long and colorful. It was first sighted on June 14, 1798, by Captain Edmund Fanning and officially discovered in 1802 by Captain Sawle of the American ship Palmyra. [7]

1798 Kingman Reef

Nineteenth century

1821 South Orkney Islands

1822 Howland Island

1825 Baker Island

1831 Chloroform

1858 Hadrosaurus foulki

Plate XIII from Cretaceous Reptiles of the United States, showing various Hadrosaurus teeth (top) and vertebrae (bottom right). The teeth on the bottom left belonged to Astrodon. Hadrosaurus lithograph.jpg
Plate XIII from Cretaceous Reptiles of the United States, showing various Hadrosaurus teeth (top) and vertebrae (bottom right). The teeth on the bottom left belonged to Astrodon.

Hadrosaurus was a dubious genus of a hadrosaurid dinosaur that lived near what is now the coast of New Jersey in the late Cretaceous, around 80 million years ago. It was likely bipedal for the purposes of running, but could use its forelegs to support itself while grazing. Like all hadrosaurids, Hadrosaurus was herbivorous. Its teeth suggest it ate twigs and leaves. In the summer of 1858 while vacationing in Haddonfield, New Jersey, William Parker Foulke discovered the world's first nearly-complete skeleton of any species of dinosaur, the Hadrosaurus (named by Joseph Leidy), an event that would rock the scientific world and forever change our view of natural history. To this day, Haddonfield, New Jersey is considered to be "ground zero" of dinosaur paleontology. [12]

1859 Midway Atoll

Midway Atoll, better known as Midway Island or collectively as the Midway islands, is a territory of the United States and a part of the wider United States Minor Outlying Islands that is located in the North Pacific Ocean near the northwestern end of the Hawaiian Islands. As a 2.4-square-mile (6.2 km2) atoll, Midway Atoll is one-third of the way between Honolulu, Hawaii and Tokyo, Japan, approximately 140 nautical miles (259 kilometers) east of the International Date Line, about 2,800 nautical miles (5,200 kilometers) west of San Francisco, California, and 2,200 nautical miles (4,100 kilometers) east of Tokyo, Japan. Midway Atoll consists of a ring-shaped barrier reef and several sand islets. The two significant pieces of land, Sand Island and Eastern Island, provide habitat for millions of seabirds. Because of the importance of marine and biological environment, Midway Atoll is an insular area known as the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge that is administered and managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, an agency of the United States Department of Interior. Midway Atoll is perhaps best known as the site of the Battle of Midway, fought in World War II on June 4–6, 1942 and the decisive turning point of the Pacific War when the United States Navy defeated an attack by the Empire of Japan. First known as "Middlebrooks Islands", Midway Atoll was discovered by U.S. Captain N.C. Brooks aboard his ship, Gambia, on July 8, 1859. [8] [13]

1859 Petroleum jelly

Petroleum jelly, petrolatum or soft paraffin is a semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons originally promoted as a topical ointment for its healing properties. The raw material for petroleum jelly was discovered in 1859 by Robert Chesebrough, a chemist from New York. In 1870, this product was branded as Vaseline Petroleum Jelly. [14]

1873 Chemical potential

1875 Red Delicious

Bushels of Red Delicious apples. Red delicious apples.jpg
Bushels of Red Delicious apples.

The Red Delicious is a clone of apple cultigen, now comprising more than 50 cultivars. The Red Delicious apple was discovered in 1875 by Jesse Hiatt on his farm in Peru, Iowa. Believing that the seedling was nothing more than nuisance. After chopping down the tree three times, Hiatt decided to let the tree grow and eventually, it produced an unknown and new harvest of red apples. Hiatt would eventually sell the rights to this type of apple to the Stark Brothers Nurseries and Orchards who renamed it the Red Delicious. [16]

1877 Deimos

Deimos is the smaller and outer of Mars' two moons. It was discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. [17]

1877 Phobos

Phobos is the larger and closer of Mars' two small moons. It was discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. [18]

1888 Cliff Palace

Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Photograph of Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde National Park - NARA - 544922.tif
Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado.

The Cliff Palace is the largest cliff dwelling in North America. The structure built by the Ancestral Puebloans is located in Mesa Verde National Park in their former homeland region. The cliff dwelling and park are in the southwestern corner of Colorado, in the Southwestern United States. The ancient ruins of Cliff Palace were co-discovered during a snowstorm in December 1888 by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason who were searching for stray cattle on Chapin Mesa. [19]

1889 Torosaurus

Torosaurus was a herbivorous dinosaur that lived during the Late Cretaceous Period about 70 million years ago in what is now North America. Torosaurus had an enormous head that measured 8 feet (2.5 m) in length. Its skull is one of the largest known up to date, no other land animal has ever had a skull larger than Torosaurus. Torosaurus frill made up about one-half the total skull length. The first fossils of Torosaurus were discovered in 1889, in Wyoming by John Bell Hatcher. The American paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh would later name the specimen Torosaurus latus, in recognition of the bull-like size of its skull and its large eyebrow horns. Ever since, the specimen has been in display at the Peabody Museum in New Haven, Connecticut. [20]

1891 Thescelosaurus

Charles Gilmore's reconstruction of Thescelosaurus in 1915. Gilmorethesc.jpg
Charles Gilmore's reconstruction of Thescelosaurus in 1915.

Thescelosaurus was a bipedal dinosaur with a sturdy build, small wide hands, and a long pointed snout from the Late Cretaceous Period, approximately 66 million years ago. As a herbivore, Thescelosaurus was not a tall dinosaur and probably browsed the ground selectively to find food. Its leg structure and proportionally heavy build suggests that it was not a fast runner like other dinosaurs. The first fossils of Thescelosaurus were co-discovered in 1891 by John Bell Hatcher and William H. Utterback, in Wyoming. However, this discovery remained stored until Charles W. Gilmore named the dinosaur in 1913. [21]

1892 Amalthea

Amalthea is the third moon of Jupiter in order of distance from the planet. It was discovered on September 9, 1892, by Edward Emerson Barnard. [22]

1899 Phoebe

Twentieth century

1902 Tyrannosaurus

The first sketch of a Tyrannosaurus skeleton in relation to a human skeleton ever published. Tyrannosaurus skeleton.jpg
The first sketch of a Tyrannosaurus skeleton in relation to a human skeleton ever published.

Tyrannosaurus, a bipedal carnivore, is a genus of theropod dinosaur. The species Tyrannosaurus rex, commonly abbreviated to T. rex, is a fixture in popular culture. It lived throughout what is now western North America, with a much wider range than other tyrannosaurids. Fossils are found in a variety of rock formations dating to the last two million years of the Cretaceous Period, 67 to 66 million years ago. It was among the last non-avian dinosaurs to exist prior to the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event. In 1902, the first skeleton of Tyrannosaurus was discovered in Hell Creek, Montana by American paleontologist Barnum Brown. In 1908, Brown discovered a better preserved skeleton of Tyrannosaurus. [24]

1908 Seyfert galaxies

1909 Burgess shale

Charles Doolittle Walcott seen excavating the Burgess shale (near Field, British Columbia) with his wife Helen and son Sidney, in the quarry which now bears his name. Charles Doolittle Walcott (1850-1927), Sidney Stevens Walcott (1892-1977), and Helen Breese Walcott (1894-1965).jpg
Charles Doolittle Walcott seen excavating the Burgess shale (near Field, British Columbia) with his wife Helen and son Sidney, in the quarry which now bears his name.

The formation of Burgess shale located in the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia is one of the world's most celebrated fossil fields, [26] and the best of its kind. [27] It is famous for the exceptional preservation of the soft parts of its fossils. It is 508 million years (Middle Cambrian) old, [28] one of the earliest soft-parts fossil beds. The rock unit is a black shale, and crops out at a number of localities near the town of Field, British Columbia in the Yoho National Park. The Burgess Shale was discovered by American palaeontologist Charles Doolittle Walcott in 1909, towards the end of the season's fieldwork. [29] He returned in 1910 with his sons, establishing a quarry on the flanks of Fossil Ridge. The significance of soft-bodied preservation, and the range of organisms he recognized as new to science, led him to return to the quarry almost every year until 1924. At this point, aged 74, he had amassed over 65,000 specimens. Describing the fossils was a vast task, pursued by Walcott until his death in 1927. [29]

1910 Propane

1912 Golden Delicious

Golden Delicious GoldenDeliciousApple.jpg
Golden Delicious

Golden Delicious is a large, yellow skinned cultivar of apple and very sweet to the taste. The original Golden Delicious tree is thought to have been discovered by Anderson Mullins on a hill near Porter Creek in Clay County, West Virginia. The Stark Brothers Nursery soon purchased the tree which spawned a leading cultivar in the United States and abroad. The Golden Delicious is the state fruit of West Virginia. [31]

1912 Smoking-cancer link

1914 Sinope

1915 Zener diodes

1916 Barnard's Star

1916 Covalent bonding

1916 Heparin

1917 Vitamin A

1923 Oviraptor

1924 Uncle Sam Diamond

1925 Cepheid variables

1927 Electron diffraction

1928 Jones Diamond

1930 Pluto

Clyde William Tombaugh, the American astronomer who discovered Pluto in 1930. Clyde W. Tombaugh.jpeg
Clyde William Tombaugh, the American astronomer who discovered Pluto in 1930.

Following the discovery of the planet Neptune in 1846, there was considerable speculation that another planet might exist beyond its orbit. The search began in the mid-19th century but culminated at the start of the 20th century with a quest for Planet X. Percival Lowell proposed the Planet X hypothesis to explain apparent discrepancies in the orbits of the gas giants, particularly Uranus and Neptune, speculating that the gravity of a large unseen planet could have perturbed Uranus enough to account for the irregularities. The discovery of Pluto by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 initially appeared to validate Lowell's hypothesis, and Pluto was considered the ninth planet until 2006. [44]

1931 Heavy hydrogen

1931 Cosmic radio waves

1932 Positrons

1932 Homeostasis

1933 Heavy water

1933 Polyvinylidene chloride

1936 Elliptical galaxies

1936 Muons

1936 Vitamin E

1936 Sodium thiopental

1937 Niacin

1937 Electron capture

1938 Fluropolymers

1938 Animal echolocation

1938 Carme

1938 Lysithea

1940 Plutonium

1942 Cyanoacrylate

1943 Streptomycin

1944 Americium

1944 Curium

1945 Promethium

1946 Cloud seeding

1948 Warfarin

1948 Miranda

1948 Serotonin

1948 Tetracycline

1949 Nereid

1949 Berkelium

1950 Californium

1951 Barium stars

1951 Ananke

1952 Polio vaccine

1952 Einsteinium

1952 Rapid eye movement

1953 DNA structure

Watson-Crick DNA model of 1953, was reconstructed largely from its original pieces in 1973 and donated to the Science Museum in London. DNA Model Crick-Watson.jpg
Watson-Crick DNA model of 1953, was reconstructed largely from its original pieces in 1973 and donated to the Science Museum in London.

In 1953, based on X-ray diffraction images and the information that the bases were paired, James D. Watson along with Francis Crick co-discovered what is now widely accepted as the first accurate double-helix model of DNA structure. [81]

1955 Mendelevium

1955 Antiproton

'1956 Porous silicon

1956 Kaon

1956 Antineutron

1956 Neutrino

1956 Nucleic acid hybridization

1958 Van Allen radiation belt

1959 Antiproton

1960 Seafloor spreading

1961 Eta meson

1964 Xi baryon

1964 Cosmic microwave background radiation

1964 Quark

1964 1930 Lucifer

1964 Hepatitis B virus

1965 Aspartame

1965 Pulsating white dwarfs

1968 Up quark

1968 Down quark

1969 Mosher's acid

1969 Interstellar formaldehyde

1970 Reverse transcriptase

1972 Opiate receptors

1974 Australopithecus "Lucy"

Full replica of Lucy's (Australopithecus afarensis) skeleton in the Museo Nacional de Antropologia at Mexico City. Lucy Mexico.jpg
Full replica of Lucy's (Australopithecus afarensis) skeleton in the Museo Nacional de Antropología at Mexico City.

Lucy is the common name of AL 288–1, several hundred pieces of bone representing about 40% of the skeleton of an individual Australopithecus afarensis. Lucy is reckoned to have lived 3.2 million years ago. [105] This hominid was significant as the skeleton shows evidence of small skull capacity akin to that of non-human apes and of bipedal upright walk akin to that of humans, providing further evidence that bipedalism preceded increase in brain size in human evolution. While working in collaboration with a joint French-British-American team, Lucy was discovered in Hadar, Ethiopia on November 24, 1974, when American paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson, coaxed away from his paperwork by graduate student Tom Gray for a spur-of-the-moment survey, caught the glint of a white fossilized bone out of the corner of his eye, and recognized it as hominid. Later described as the first known member of Australopithecus afarensis . Dr. Johanson's girlfriend suggested she be named "Lucy" after the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" which was played repeatedly during the night of the discovery. [106]

1974 J/ψ mesons

1974 Charm quark

1974 Binary pulsars

1974 Leda

1974 Seaborgium

1975 1983 Bok

1975 Themisto

1975 Amarillo Starlight

1976 D mesons

1976 Hepatitis B virus vaccine

1977 Tau lepton

1977 Rings of Uranus

A long-exposure, high phase angle (172.5deg) Voyager 2 image of Uranus' inner rings. In forward-scattered light, dust bands not visible in other images can be seen, as well as the recognized rings. FDS 26852.19 Rings of Uranus.png
A long-exposure, high phase angle (172.5°) Voyager 2 image of Uranus' inner rings. In forward-scattered light, dust bands not visible in other images can be seen, as well as the recognized rings.

The planet Uranus has a system of rings intermediate in complexity between the more extensive set around Saturn and the simpler systems around Jupiter and Neptune. The rings of Uranus were discovered on March 10, 1977, by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Douglas J. Mink. More than 200 years ago, William Herschel also reported observing rings, but modern astronomers are skeptical that he could actually have noticed them, as they are very dark and faint. [115]

1977 Upsilon mesons

1977 Bottom quark

1978 Restriction endonucleases

1978 Charon

1979 Metis

1979 Thebe

1979 Rings of Jupiter

1980 Oncogene

1980 Pandora

1980 Prometheus

1980 Atlas

1981 Larissa

1983 Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine

1984 Whydah wreckage

Location of Whydah Gally which sank in 1717, near Cape Cod. The red X marks the spot. Uida mapa.jpg
Location of Whydah Gally which sank in 1717, near Cape Cod. The red X marks the spot.

First launched in 1715 from London, England, the Whydah was a three-masted ship of galley-style design measuring 105 feet (32 m) in length, rated at 300 tons burden, and could travel at speeds up to 14.95 mph (24.06 km/h). Christened Whydah after the West African slave trading kingdom of Ouidah, the vessel was configured as a heavily armed trading and transport ship for use in the Atlantic slave trade, carrying goods from England to exchange for slaves in West Africa. It would then travel to the Caribbean to trade the slaves for precious metals, sugar, indigo, and medicinal ingredients, which would then be transported back to England. Captained by the English pirate "Black Sam" Bellamy, the Whydah, on April 26, 1717, sailed into a violent storm dangerously close to Cape Cod and was eventually driven onto the shoals at Wellfleet, Massachusetts. At midnight she hit a sandbar in 16 feet (4.9 m) of water some 500 feet (150 m) from the coast of what is now Marconi Beach. Pummelled by 70-mile (110 km)-an-hour winds and 30 to 40-foot (12 m) waves, the main mast snapped, pulling the ship into some 30 feet (9.1 m) of water where she violently capsized, taking Bellamy, all but two of his 145 men, and over 4.5 tons of gold, silver and jewels with it. After years of exhaustive searching, it was in 1984 that world headlines were made when American archeological explorer Barry Clifford found the only solidly-identified pirate shipwreck ever discovered, the Whydah. Two-hundred thousand artifacts and sunken treasures were discovered in the shipwreck as well. [129]

1985 Puck

1985 RMS Titanic wreckage

The bow of the wrecked RMS Titanic, photographed in June 2004 Titanic wreck bow.jpg
The bow of the wrecked RMS Titanic, photographed in June 2004

The RMS Titanic was an Olympic class passenger liner owned by the White Star Line and was built at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, in what is now Northern Ireland. At the time of her construction, she was the largest passenger steamship in the world. Shortly before midnight on April 14, 1912, four days into the ship's maiden voyage, Titanic struck an iceberg and sank two hours and forty minutes later, early on April 15, 1912. The sinking resulted in the deaths of 1,517 of the 2,223 people on board, making it one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history. After nearly 74 years of being lost at sea on the bottom of the ocean floor, a joint Franco-American expedition led by American oceanographer Dr. Robert D. Ballard, discovered the wreckage of the RMS Titanic two miles (3 km) beneath the waves of the North Atlantic on September 1, 1985. Ballard was then forced to wait a year for weather conditions favorable to a crewed mission to view the wreck at close range. In 1986, Ballard and his two-man crew, in the ALVIN submersible, made the first two-and-a-half-hour descent to the ocean floor to view the wreck first-hand. Over the next few days, they descended again and again and, using the Jason Jr. remote camera, recorded the first scenes of the ruined interior of the luxury liner. [131]

1986 Portia

1986 Juliet

1986 Cressida

1986 Rosalind

1986 Belinda

1986 Desdemona

1986 Cordelia

1986 Ophelia

1986 Bianca

1986 Tumor suppressor gene

1989 Rings of Neptune

1989 Proteus

1989 Despina

1989 Galatea

1989 Thalassa

1989 Naiad

1989 Bismarck wreckage

1990 Strawn-Wagner Diamond

The Strawn-Wagner Diamond is a rare 3.03 carat diamond that is certified by the American Gem Society (AGS) as the world's most perfect diamond in terms of its cut and the highest grade possible, the "Triple Zero". The Strawn-Wagner Diamond was discovered in 1990 at the Crater of Diamonds State Park by Shirley Strawn of Murfreesboro, Arkansas. [39]

1993 Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

1995 Top quark

1995 Comet Hale-Bopp

1998 USS Yorktown (CV-5) wreckage

1998 Embryonic stem cell lines

Twenty-first century

2001 Interstellar vinyl alcohol

2003 Sedna

2003 Psamathe

2003 Mab

2003 Perdita

2003 Cupid

2004 Orcus

2005 Makemake

2005 Eris

Artist impression of Eris and Dysnomia. Eris is the main object, Dysnomia the small grey disk just above it. The flaring object top-left is the Sun. 2006-16-a-full-1-.jpg
Artist impression of Eris and Dysnomia. Eris is the main object, Dysnomia the small grey disk just above it. The flaring object top-left is the Sun.

Eris, formal designation 136199 Eris, is the largest-known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest body known to orbit the Sun directly. It is approximately 2,500 kilometres in diameter and 27% more massive than the dwarf planet Pluto. Eris was discovered in 2005 at W. M. Keck Observatory by American astronomer Michael E. Brown. [150]

2005 Dysnomia

Dysnomia, officially (136199) Eris I Dysnomia, is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris. In conjunction of finding Eris, American astronomer Michael E. Brown discovered Eris' satellite, Dysnomia, at W. M. Keck Observatory in 2005. [151]

2005 Hydra

Hydra is the outer-most natural satellite of Pluto. It was discovered along with Nix in June 2005 by the Hubble Space Telescope's Pluto Companion Search Team, which is composed of Hal A. Weaver, Alan Stern, Max J. Mutchler, Andrew J. Steffl, Marc W. Buie, William J. Merline, John R. Spencer, Eliot F. Young, and Leslie A. Young. [152]

2005 Nix

Nix is a natural satellite of Pluto. It was discovered along with Hydra in June 2005 by the Hubble Space Telescope's Pluto Companion Search Team, composed of Hal A. Weaver, Alan Stern, Max J. Mutchler, Andrew J. Steffl, Marc W. Buie, William J. Merline, John R. Spencer, Eliot F. Young, and Leslie A. Young. [152]

2005 KV63 at the Valley of the Kings

2007 Human genome and variation mapping

2007 Di-positronium

See also

Footnotes

  1. "Dinosaur Wars". PBS Educational Foundation.
  2. "NASA Phoenix Mars Lander Confirms Frozen Water". NASA. Archived from the original on 2008-07-01. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
  3. "Happy 300th Birthday Ben Franklin!" (PDF). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
  4. "Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge". United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
  5. "Faning Islands (Tabuaeran) Paper Money". Numismondo.
  6. "Washington Island". Jane Resture.
  7. "Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge". United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
  8. 1 2 3 "U.S. Unincorporated Possessions". Ben Cahoon.
  9. "An Antarctic Time Line: 1519 - 1959". South Pole.com.
  10. "Baker Island (U.S. Minor Outlying Islands)". Flags of the World.
  11. "Chloroform". BBC Radio 4.
  12. "Finding the World's First Dinosaur Skeleton Hadrosaurus foulki". Hoag Levins.
  13. "Discovery of Midway". United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
  14. "Vaseline". Unilever.
  15. "J. Willard Gibbs". American Physical Society.
  16. "Red Delicious Apples". Stemilt Growers LLC.
  17. "Under the Moons of Mars". NASA.
  18. "Nasa probe pictures Phobos moon". BBC News. April 10, 2008. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  19. Ancient architecture of the Southwest . University of Texas Press. 1994. p.  139. ISBN   978-0-292-75159-0. Cliff palace Richard Wetherill.
  20. "Torosaurus latus". Planet Dinosaur.
  21. "Thescelosaurus". Science Views.
  22. "Amalthea". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  23. "Phoebe". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 June 2023.
  24. "Barnum Brown". Strange Science.
  25. "Seyfert Galaxies". Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy.
  26. Gabbott, Sarah E. (2001). "Exceptional Preservation". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001622. ISBN   0-470-01590-X.
  27. Collins, D. (Aug 2009). "Misadventures in the Burgess Shale". Nature. 460 (7258): 952–953. Bibcode:2009Natur.460..952C. doi:10.1038/460952a. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   19693066. S2CID   27237547.
  28. Butterfield, N.J. (2006). "Hooking some stem-group" worms": fossil lophotrochozoans in the Burgess Shale". BioEssays. 28 (12): 1161–6. doi:10.1002/bies.20507. PMID   17120226. S2CID   29130876.
  29. 1 2 Briggs, D. E. G.; Erwin, D. H.; Collier, F. J. (1995), Fossils of the Burgess Shale , Washington: Smithsonian Inst Press, ISBN   1-56098-659-X, OCLC   231793738
  30. "The History of Propane". National Propane Gas Association. Archived from the original on January 11, 2011.
  31. "Golden Delicious". West Virginia Humanities Council.
  32. Adler, I. A. (1980). "Primary Malignant Growth of the Lung and Bronchi". CA Cancer J Clin. 30 (5). A Cancer Journal for Clinicians: 295–301. doi: 10.3322/canjclin.30.5.295 . PMID   6773624. S2CID   6967224.
  33. "Discovery of the Ninth Satellite of Jupiter". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific.
  34. "Barnard's Star". Sol Company.
  35. "Gilbert N. Lewis". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  36. "Heparin used as an anticoagulant". AnimalResearch.info.
  37. "Vitamin A". Hyper Physics.
  38. "Oviraptor". Dinochecker.com.
  39. 1 2 3 "Famous Finds". Crater of Diamonds State Park. 19 February 2021.
  40. "Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology". University of Bonn.
  41. Hubble, E.P. (1936). The realm of the nebulae. Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman memorial lectures, 25. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN   9780300025002. LCCN   36018182. OCLC   611263346. Alt URL
  42. "Quantum Physics Timeline". Craville Studies.
  43. "51 Famous and Historic Diamonds". Abazias Diamonds.
  44. "Finding Pluto: Tough Task, Even 75 Years Later". Imaginova Corp. 11 March 2005.
  45. "Harold C. Urey". Nobelprize.org.
  46. "Karl Jansky and the Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves". The National Radio Astronomy Observatory.
  47. "Carl D. Anderson". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  48. Brown, T. M.; Fee, E. (2002). "Walter Bradford Cannon: Pioneer Physiologist of Human Emotions". American Journal of Public Health. 92 (10). American Public Health Association: 1594–1595. doi:10.2105/AJPH.92.10.1594. PMC   1447286 .
  49. "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 2003-08-23.
  50. "History of Plastics". Plastics Federation of South Africa.
  51. Hubble, E. P. (1936). The Realm of the Nebulae. New Haven: Yale University Press. LCCN   36018182.
  52. "Muon Lifetime Experiment Purpose Introduction" (PDF). Ohio State University.
  53. "Vitamin E". Time Magazine. May 9, 1927. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  54. "General Anesthetic Pentothal". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 2007-07-14.
  55. "Niacin Augments the Benefits of Statins". Life Enhancement Products, Inc.
  56. Kaufman, Leslie (August 21, 1999). "Michael Sveda, the Inventor Of Cyclamates, Dies at 87". Nobel The New York Times. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  57. "DuPont Fluoropolymer Solutions" (PDF). DuPont.
  58. "Donald R. Griffin". The National Academies Press.
  59. "Two New Satellites of Jupiter". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific.
  60. "Science Engineering and Technology timeline". Intute.
  61. "Plutonium". Chemical Scioence Network.
  62. "Super Glue". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on May 3, 2009.
  63. "Harry Coover, Super Glue inventor, dies at 94". USA Today. March 28, 2011.
  64. "ALCOHOL-CATALYZED A-CYANOACRYLATE". United States Patent and Trademark Office.
  65. Mistiaen, Veronique (November 2, 2002). "Time, and the great healer". London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  66. "History of Americium". Travis Meuten.
  67. "Chemistry in its element - curium". Royal Society of Chemistry.
  68. "Jacob Marinsky; co-discoverer of promethium". Boston Globe.
  69. Lambert, Bruce (July 28, 1993). "Vincent J. Schaefer, 87, Is Dead; Chemist Who First Seeded Clouds". The New York Times. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  70. Pirmohamed, M (2006). "Warfarin: almost 60 years old and still causing problems". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 62 (5). University of Liverpool: 509–11. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2006.02806.x. PMC   1885167 . PMID   17061959.
  71. "Miranda". Sea and Sky.
  72. "Irvine Heinly Page". The National Academies Press.
  73. "California Megan's Law - California Department of Justice - Office of the Attorney General" (PDF). California Department of Justice.
  74. "Berkelium". Radio Chemistry Society.
  75. "Californium". University of California.
  76. Bergeat, J.; Knapik, A. (1997). "The barium stars in the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 321. Harvard University: L9. Bibcode:1997A&A...321L...9B.
  77. "An unidentified object near Jupiter, probably a new satellite". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific.
  78. "Jonas Salk". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 2003-04-15.
  79. "Einsteinium". University of California. Archived from the original on 2007-10-26. Retrieved 2010-05-27.
  80. "Rapid Eye Movement". Stanford University.
  81. HuntGrubbe, Charlotte (October 14, 2007). "The elementary DNA of Dr Watson". London: Times Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  82. "Mendelevium". PTE.
  83. "Antiproton". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  84. "A brief overview of porous silicon" (PDF). Duke University.
  85. "Leon Lederman, the K-meson, the Muon Neutrino, and the Bottom Quark". US Department of Energy.
  86. "2. New Directions and New Machines". UC Berkeley. Archived from the original on 2011-05-16. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
  87. "The First Detection of The Neutrino by Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan". University of California at Irvine.
  88. "Scientists celebrate 50 years since key RNA discovery". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 9 January 2007.
  89. "The Van Allen Belt". NASA.
  90. Glanz, James (March 2, 2006). "Owen Chamberlain, 85, Dies; Discovered Antiproton". New York Times. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  91. "Seafloor spreading". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  92. "Interaction of the eta-meson with light nuclei" (PDF). University of South Africa.
  93. The Xi Baryon
  94. "Fighting talk on the front line". London: The Daily Telegraph 4. Retrieved May 25, 2010.[ dead link ]
  95. "1930 Lucifer (1964 UA)". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
  96. 1 2 "Desert Island Discs". BBC Radio 4.
  97. "History". Ajinomoto Health & Nutrition North America. The Aspartame Information Service.
  98. Landolt, Arlo U. (1968). "A New Short-Period Blue Variable". Astrophysical Journal. 153. Harvard University: 151. Bibcode:1968ApJ...153..151L. doi: 10.1086/149645 .
  99. "Two Professors Share 1990 Physics Nobel". Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  100. "What is matter?" (PDF). Jefferson Lab.
  101. Dale, James A.; Dull, David L.; Mosher, Harry S. (1969). "A versatile reagent for the determination of enantiomeric composition of alcohols and amines". The Journal of Organic Chemistry. 34 (9). Journal of Organic Chemistry: 2543. doi:10.1021/jo01261a013.
  102. "Events in science and mathematics". Ohio State University.
  103. "Reverse Transcriptase and the Generation of Retroviral DNA". National Center for Biotechnology Information.
  104. "Your Body Is Your Subconscious Mind". Dr. Candace Pert.
  105. "Mother of man - 3.2 million years ago". BBC Home. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
  106. "Fossil defines professor's life". Arizona Central.
  107. "Meson". Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
  108. "Structure of Matter". Nobelprize.org.
  109. "Binary pulsar". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  110. "Press Information Sheet: New Outer Satellite of Jupiter Discovered". Minor Planet Center.
  111. "Seaborgium". Los Alamos National Laboratory . Retrieved 4 March 2013.
  112. Dictionary of minor planet names, Volume 1. International Astronomical Union. 2003. ISBN   978-3-540-00238-3.
  113. "Jupiter Satellite (2000 J1 = S/1975 J1)". University of Hawaii. Archived from the original on 2009-04-22.
  114. "Timelines of Events in Science, Mathematics, and Technology". Ohio State University.
  115. "Uranus". BBC. 5 December 2000.
  116. "Upsilon meson". Britannica Encyclopaedia.
  117. "Leon Lederman, the K-meson, the Muon, Neutrino, and the Bottom Quark". US Department of Energy.
  118. "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1978". Nobel Foundation.
  119. "Charon". BBC - Science & Nature - Space.
  120. "Metis". The University Corporation of Atmospheric Research.
  121. "1979J2: The Discovery of a Previously Unknown Jovian Satellite". ScienceMag.
  122. Smith, B. A.; Soderblom, L. A.; Johnson, T. V.; Ingersoll, A. P.; Collins, S. A.; Shoemaker, E. M.; Hunt, G. E.; Masursky, H.; et al. (1979). "The Jupiter System through the Eyes of Voyager 1". Science. 204 (4396). Harvard University: 951–72. Bibcode:1979Sci...204..951S. doi:10.1126/science.204.4396.951. PMID   17800430. S2CID   33147728.
  123. 1 2 "Robert A. Weinberg Wins National Medal of Science". Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research.
  124. "IAUC 3539: 1980 S 28". Harvard University.
  125. "IAUC 3532: SN IN NGC 6946; Sats OF Saturn; HD 44179; W Hya". Harvard University.
  126. "Saturn: Moons: Atlas". NASA. Archived from the original on 2002-11-26.
  127. "Larissa". Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
  128. Process validation in manufacturing of biopharmaceuticals. Informa Health Care. 2005. ISBN   978-1-57444-516-9.
  129. "Education through exploration..." The Whydah Museum.
  130. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "The Moons of Uranus". Smithsonian Institution.
  131. "Robert D. Ballard: Discoverer of the Titanic". American Academy of Achievement.
  132. "Voyager 2 Finds Rings at Neptune (But Not All the Way Around It)". The New York Times. August 12, 1989. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  133. "Proteus - Voyager 2". NASA.
  134. 1 2 3 4 "Neptune in 3D". CSU Hayward.
  135. "The wreck of the Bismarck". KBismarck.com.
  136. "Section 4: The Discovery and Early Study of Shoemaker-Levy 9". Ray L. Newburn, Jr.
  137. "Inquiring Minds". Fermni National Accelerator Laboratory.
  138. "The discovery of Comet Hale–Bopp". NASA.
  139. "USS Yorktown CV-5". Pacific Wrecks Incorporated.
  140. Baker, Monya (2008). "James Thomson: shifts from embryonic stem cells to induced pluripotency". Nature Reports Stem Cells. Nature: 1. doi: 10.1038/stemcells.2008.118 .
  141. Blue, Charles (October 1, 2001). "Scientists Toast the Discovery of Vinyl Alcohol in Interstellar Space" (Press release). National Radio Astronomy Observatory . Retrieved December 20, 2006.
  142. Turner, B. E.; Apponi, A. J. (2001). "Microwave Detection of Interstellar Vinyl Alcohol, CH
    2
    =CHOH
    "
    . The Astrophysical Journal . 561 (2): L207–L210. doi: 10.1086/324762 .
  143. "Sedna". Caltech.
  144. "Psamathe". astrowww.pl.
  145. "NASA's Hubble Discovers New Rings And Moons Around Uranus". Science Daily.
  146. "Perdita". astrowww.pl.
  147. "IAU Circular No. 8209". Harvard University.
  148. "Orcus (2004 DW)". Sol Company.
  149. "Dwarf Planets: Makemake". NASA. Archived from the original on 2010-10-07.
  150. "The Discovery Of Eris". Space Daily.
  151. "All Hail Eris and Dysnomia". Sky Publishing. Archived from the original on 2012-05-27.
  152. 1 2 "New names for Pluto's moons". PhysicsWorld.
  153. "KV 63: A Look at the New Tomb". Archaeological Institute of America.
  154. "Top 10 Scientific Discoveries". Time Inc. December 9, 2007. Archived from the original on December 12, 2007. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  155. "Molecules made with antimatter". Royal Society of Chemistry.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naiad (moon)</span> Moon of Neptune

Naiad, named after the naiads of Greek legend, is the innermost satellite of Neptune and the nearest to the center of any gas giant with moons with a distance of 48,224 km from the planet's center. Its orbital period is less than a Neptunian day, resulting in tidal dissipation that will cause its orbit to decay. Eventually it will either crash into Neptune's atmosphere or break up to become a new ring.

<i>Voyager 2</i> NASA "grand tour" planetary probe

Voyager 2 is a space probe launched by NASA on August 20, 1977, as a part of the Voyager program. It was launched on a trajectory toward the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn and enabled further encounters with the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. It remains the only spacecraft to have visited either of the ice giant planets, and was the third of five spacecraft to achieve Solar escape velocity, which will allow it to leave the Solar System. It has been sending scientific data to Earth for 46 years, 9 months, 19 days, making it the oldest active space probe. Launched 16 days before its twin Voyager 1, the primary mission of the spacecraft was to study the outer planets and its extended mission is to study interstellar space beyond the Sun's heliosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uranus</span> Seventh planet from the Sun

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It is a gaseous cyan-coloured ice giant. Most of the planet is made of water, ammonia, and methane in a supercritical phase of matter, which in astronomy is called 'ice' or volatiles. The planet's atmosphere has a complex layered cloud structure and has the lowest minimum temperature of 49 K out of all the Solar System's planets. It has a marked axial tilt of 82.23° with a retrograde rotation period of 17 hours and 14 minutes. This means that in an 84-Earth-year orbital period around the Sun, its poles get around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of continuous darkness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Puck (moon)</span> Moon of Uranus

Puck the sixth-largest moon of Uranus. It was discovered in December 1985 by the Voyager 2 spacecraft. The name Puck follows the convention of naming Uranus's moons after characters from Shakespeare. The orbit of Puck lies between the rings of Uranus and the first of Uranus's large moons, Miranda. Puck is approximately spherical in shape and has diameter of about 162 km. It has a dark, heavily cratered surface, which shows spectral signs of water ice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Juliet (moon)</span> Moon of Uranus

Juliet is an inner satellite of Uranus. It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 3 January 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 2. It is named after the heroine of William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. It is also designated Uranus XI.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Belinda (moon)</span> Moon of Uranus

Belinda is an inner satellite of the planet Uranus. Belinda was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 13 January 1986 and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 5. It is named after the heroine of Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock. It is also designated Uranus XIV.

The timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their natural satellites charts the progress of the discovery of new bodies over history. Each object is listed in chronological order of its discovery, identified through its various designations, and the discoverer(s) listed.

Scott Sander Sheppard is an American astronomer and a discoverer of numerous moons, comets and minor planets in the outer Solar System.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moons of Uranus</span> Natural satellites of the planet Uranus

Uranus, the seventh planet of the Solar System, has 28 confirmed moons. Most of them are named after characters that appear in, or are mentioned in, the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. Uranus's moons are divided into three groups: thirteen inner moons, five major moons, and ten irregular moons. The inner and major moons all have prograde orbits and are cumulatively classified as regular moons. In contrast, the orbits of the irregular moons are distant, highly inclined, and mostly retrograde.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moons of Neptune</span> Natural satellites of the planet Neptune

The planet Neptune has 16 known moons, which are named for minor water deities and a water creature in Greek mythology. By far the largest of them is Triton, discovered by William Lassell on October 10, 1846, 17 days after the discovery of Neptune itself. Over a century passed before the discovery of the second natural satellite, Nereid, in 1949, and another 40 years passed before Proteus, Neptune's second-largest moon, was discovered in 1989.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rings of Uranus</span> Planetary ring system of Uranus

The rings of Uranus are intermediate in complexity between the more extensive set around Saturn and the simpler systems around Jupiter and Neptune. The rings of Uranus were discovered on March 10, 1977, by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Jessica Mink. William Herschel had also reported observing rings in 1789; modern astronomers are divided on whether he could have seen them, as they are very dark and faint.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rings of Neptune</span> Rings of the planet Neptune

The rings of Neptune consist primarily of five principal rings. They were first discovered by simultaneous observations of a stellar occultation on 22 July 1984 by André Brahic's and William B. Hubbard's teams at La Silla Observatory (ESO) and at Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory in Chile. They were eventually imaged in 1989 by the Voyager 2 spacecraft. At their densest, they are comparable to the less dense portions of Saturn's main rings such as the C ring and the Cassini Division, but much of Neptune's ring system is quite faint and dusty, in some aspects more closely resembling the rings of Jupiter. Neptune's rings are named after astronomers who contributed important work on the planet: Galle, Le Verrier, Lassell, Arago, and Adams. Neptune also has a faint unnamed ring coincident with the orbit of the moon Galatea. Three other moons orbit between the rings: Naiad, Thalassa and Despina.

Jitendra Jatashankar Rawal is an Indian astrophysicist and scientific educator, recognized for his work in the popularisation of science.

In astronomy, an inner moon or inner natural satellite is a natural satellite following a prograde, low-inclination orbit inwards of the large satellites of the parent planet. They are generally thought to have been formed in situ at the same time as the coalescence of the original planet. Neptune's moons are an exception, as they are likely reaggregates of the pieces of the original bodies, which were disrupted after the capture of the large moon Triton. Inner satellites are distinguished from other regular satellites by their proximity to the parent planet, their short orbital periods, their low mass, small size, and irregular shapes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exploration of Uranus</span> Exploration in space

The exploration of Uranus has, to date, been through telescopes and a lone probe by NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft, which made its closest approach to Uranus on January 24, 1986. Voyager 2 discovered 10 moons, studied the planet's cold atmosphere, and examined its ring system, discovering two new rings. It also imaged Uranus' five large moons, revealing that their surfaces are covered with impact craters and canyons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exploration of Neptune</span> Overview of the exploration of Neptune

Neptune has been directly explored by one space probe, Voyager 2, in 1989. As of 2024, there are no confirmed future missions to visit the Neptunian system, although a tentative Chinese mission has been planned for launch in 2024. NASA, ESA, and independent academic groups have proposed future scientific missions to visit Neptune. Some mission plans are still active, while others have been abandoned or put on hold.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heidi Hammel</span> Planetary astronomer

Heidi B. Hammel is a planetary astronomer who has extensively studied Neptune and Uranus. She was part of the team imaging Neptune from Voyager 2 in 1989. She led the team using the Hubble Space Telescope to view Shoemaker-Levy 9's impact with Jupiter in 1994. She has used the Hubble Space Telescope and the Keck Telescope to study Uranus and Neptune, discovering new information about dark spots, planetary storms and Uranus' rings. In 2002, she was selected as an interdisciplinary scientist for the James Webb Space Telescope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neptune</span> Eighth planet from the Sun

Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun. It is the fourth-largest planet in the Solar System by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. It is 17 times the mass of Earth and slightly more massive than fellow ice giant Uranus. Neptune is denser and physically smaller than Uranus because its greater mass causes more gravitational compression of its atmosphere. Being composed primarily of gases and liquids, it has no well-defined solid surface. The planet orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at an orbital distance of 30.1 astronomical units. It is named after the Roman god of the sea and has the astronomical symbol , representing Neptune's trident.

Philip D. Nicholson is an Australian-born professor of astronomy at Cornell University in the Astronomy department specialising in Planetary Sciences. He was editor-in-chief of the journal Icarus between 1998 and 2018.