Xenophobia in the United States

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Cartoon from Puck, August 9, 1899 by J. S. Pughe. Uncle Sam sees hyphenated voters and asks, "Why should I let these freaks cast whole ballots when they are only half Americans?" Hyphenated Americans Voting Cartoon 1899.jpg
Cartoon from Puck , August 9, 1899 by J. S. Pughe. Uncle Sam sees hyphenated voters and asks, "Why should I let these freaks cast whole ballots when they are only half Americans?"

Xenophobia in the United States is the fear or hatred of any cultural group in the United States that is perceived as being foreign or strange or un-American. It expresses a conflict between an ingroup and an outgroup and may manifest in suspicion by the one of the other's activities, and beliefs and goals. It includes a desire to eliminate their presence, and fear of losing national, ethnic, or racial identity and is often closely linked to racism and discrimination. [1]

Contents

This has resulted in discriminatory laws, such as the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, restrictions on immigration policies and other actions including violence.

Know-Nothing Party, 1854-1856

The Know Nothing party was a nativist political party in the mid-1850s. It carried many state and local elections in 1854-1855, but failed to pass major laws and suddenly collapsed. [2] [3]

Know Nothing agitators proclaimed that a "Romanist" conspiracy headed by the Pope in Rome was in control of by Catholic immigrants. The goal was to subvert civil and religious liberty and destroy Protestantism. In response it was urgent to politically organize native-born Protestants. The Know Nothing movement emphasized that Irish Catholic priests and bishops would control a large bloc of voters in the Democratic Party. [4] Henry Winter Davis, an active Know-Nothing, was elected on the American Party ticket to Congress from Maryland. He told Congress in late 1856 that the un-American Irish Catholic immigrants were to blame for the recent election of Democrat James Buchanan as president, stating: [5]

The recent election has developed in an aggravated form every evil against which the American party protested. Foreign allies have decided the government of the country -- men naturalized in thousands on the eve of the election. Again in the fierce struggle for supremacy, men have forgotten the ban which the Republic puts on the intrusion of religious influence on the political arena. These influences have brought vast multitudes of foreign-born citizens to the polls, ignorant of American interests, without American feelings, influenced by foreign sympathies, to vote on American affairs; and those votes have, in point of fact, accomplished the present result.

In the South, the party did not emphasize anti-Catholicism but instead attacked corrupt Democratic politicians and filled the vacuum caused by the collapse of the Whig Party. The ideology and influence lasted only one or two years before it disintegrated due to weak and inexperienced elected officials who were unable to pass legislation, and a deep split over the issue of slavery. [2]

Asian targets

Asian xenophobia in the United States has at least 100 years of history.

Anti-Chinese

In the 1870s and 1880s in the Western states, ethnic Whites especially Irish Americans targeted violence against Chinese workers, driving them out of smaller towns. They relocated into districts of a few larger cities called "Chinatowns." [6] Denis Kearney, an immigrant from Ireland, led a mass movement in San Francisco in the 1870s that incited racist attacks on the Chinese there and threatened public officials and railroad owners. [7] The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first of many nativist acts of Congress which attempted to limit the flow of immigrants into the U.S.. The Chinese responded to it by filing false claims of American birth, enabling thousands of them to immigrate to California. [8] The exclusion of the Chinese caused the western railroads to begin importing Mexican railroad workers in greater numbers ("traqueros"). [9] In 1943 when China was an ally against Japan, the restrictions were repealed and Chinese could become citizens. [10]

Anti-Japanese

Attacks on the Japanese in the Western U.S., echoing the dreaded Yellow Peril became increasingly xenophobic after the unexpected Japanese triumph over the supposedly powerful Russian Empire in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In October, 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education passed a regulation whereby children of Japanese descent would be required to attend racially segregated and separate schools. At the time, Japanese immigrants made up 1% of the state's population; many of them had come under the treaty in 1894 which had assured free immigration from Japan. In 1907, nativists rioted up and down the West Coast demanding exclusion of Japanese immigrants and imposition of segregated schools for Caucasian and Japanese students.

The California Alien Land Law of 1913 was specifically created to prevent land ownership among Japanese citizens who were residing in the state of California. In 1918 courts ruled that American-born children had the right to own land. California proceeded to strengthen its Alien land law in 1920 and 1923 and other states followed. [11]

According to Gary Y. Okihiro, the Japanese government subsidized Japanese writers in America especially Kiyoshi Kawakami and Yamato Ichihashi to refute the hostile stereotypes and establish a favorable image of Japanese in the American mind. Thus Kawakami's books especially Asia at the Door (1914) and The Real Japanese Question (1921) tried to refute the false accusations. The publicists confronted the main allegations regarding lack of assimilation, and boasted of the positive Japanese contributions to American economy and society, especially in Hawaii and California. [12]

During World War II, the United States forcibly relocated and interned at least 120,000 people of Japanese descent in 75 identified incarceration sites after Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 and the United States subsequent declaration of war on Japan. [13] [14] Most lived on the Pacific Coast, in internment camps in the western interior of the country. Approximately two-thirds of the inmates were United States citizens. [15] These actions were initiated by president Franklin D. Roosevelt via an executive order shortly after Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. [16]

Editorial cartoon warning against unrestricted immigration Los Angeles Times Nov 14 1920 by E W Gale Spoiling the Broth--Los Angeles Times Nov 14 1920 by E W Gale.jpg
Editorial cartoon warning against unrestricted immigration Los Angeles Times Nov 14 1920 by E W Gale

Emergency Quota Act

This section is an excerpt from Emergency Quota Act.[ edit ]

The Emergency Quota Act, also known as the Emergency Immigration Act of 1921, the Immigration Restriction Act of 1921, the Per Centum Law, and the Johnson Quota Act (ch. 8, 42  Stat.   5 of May 19, 1921), was formulated mainly in response to the large influx of Southern and Eastern Europeans and restricted their immigration to the United States. Although intended as temporary legislation, it "proved, in the long run, the most important turning-point in American immigration policy" [17] because it added two new features to American immigration law: numerical limits on immigration and the use of a quota system for establishing those limits, which came to be known as the National Origins Formula.

The Emergency Quota Act restricted the number of immigrants admitted from any country annually to 3% of the number of residents from that country living in the United States as of the 1910 Census. [18] That meant that people from Northern and Western Europe had a higher quota and were more likely to be admitted to the US than those from Eastern or Southern Europe or from non-European countries.

The act was revised by the Immigration Act of 1924.

Trump administration

Children sitting within a wire mesh compartment in the Ursula detention facility in McAllen, Texas, June 2018 Ursula (detention center) 1.png
Children sitting within a wire mesh compartment in the Ursula detention facility in McAllen, Texas, June 2018

Immigration policy, including illegal immigration to the United States, was a signature issue of President Donald Trump's presidential campaign, and his proposed reforms and remarks about this issue generated much publicity. [19] [20] Trump has repeatedly said that illegal immigrants are criminals. [21] [22] Critics have argued that there is an increasing amount of evidence that immigration does not correlate with higher crime rates. [22]

A hallmark promise of his campaign was the Trump wall, a much expanded barrier on the United States–Mexico border and to force Mexico to pay for the wall. Trump has also expressed support for a variety of "limits on legal immigration and guest-worker visas", [20] [23] including a pause on granting green cards, which Trump says will lower immigration levels to historical averages. [24]

As president, Trump imposed a travel ban that prohibited issuing visas to citizens of seven largely-Muslim countries expanded to thirteen in 2020. In response to legal challenges he revised the ban twice, with his third version being upheld by the Supreme Court in June 2018. [25]

He attempted to end the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program, but a legal injunction has allowed the policy to continue while the matter is the subject of legal challenge. He imposed a "zero tolerance" policy to require the arrest of anyone caught illegally crossing the border, which resulted in separating children from their families. [26]

On January 30, 2018, Trump outlined his administration's four pillars for immigration reform: (1) a path to citizenship for DREAMers; (2) increased border security funding; (3) ending the diversity visa lottery; and (4) restrictions on family-based immigration. [27]

Trump's position was strongly supported by conservative voters. Studies found the higher voters' xenophobia was, the higher was their support for political violence. [28] [29]

Current status

A network of more than 300 US-based civil rights and human rights organizations stated in a 2010 report that "Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and it extends to all communities of color." [30] Discrimination against racial, ethnic, and religious minorities is widely acknowledged, especially in the case of Indians, Muslims, Sikhs as well as other ethnic groups.

Members of every major American ethnic and religious minority group have perceived discrimination in their dealings with members of other minority racial and religious groups. Philosopher Cornel West has stated that "racism is an integral element within the very fabric of American culture and society. It is embedded in the country's first collective definition, enunciated in its subsequent laws, and imbued in its dominant way of life." [31]

A 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center suggested that 76% of black and Asian respondents had experienced some form of discrimination, at least from time to time. [32] Studies from PNAS and Nature have found that during traffic stops, officers spoke to black men in a less respectful tone than they did to white men and that black drivers are more likely to be pulled over and searched by police than white drivers. [33] Black people are also reportedly overrepresented as criminals in the media. [34] In 2020 the COVID-19 epidemic was often blamed on China, leading to attacks on Chinese Americans. [35] This represents a continuation of xenophobic attacks on Chinese Americans for 150 years. [36]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenophobia</span> Dislike of anything that is perceived to be foreign or strange

Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression that is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-group and an out-group and it may manifest itself in suspicion of one group's activities by members of the other group, a desire to eliminate the presence of the group that is the target of suspicion, and fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese Exclusion Act</span> American federal law enacted in 1882

The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by President Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers for 10 years. The law made exceptions for merchants, teachers, students, travelers, and diplomats. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the first major US law ever implemented to prevent all members of a specific national group from immigrating to the United States, and therefore helped shape twentieth-century race-based immigration policy.

The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 was an informal agreement between the United States of America and the Empire of Japan whereby Japan would not allow laborers further emigration to the United States and the United States would not impose restrictions on Japanese immigrants already present in the country. The goal was to reduce tensions between the two Pacific nations such as those that followed the Pacific Coast race riots of 1907 and the segregation of Japanese students in public schools. The agreement was not a treaty and so was not voted on by the United States Congress. It was superseded by the Immigration Act of 1924.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration Act of 1924</span> 1924 United States anti-immigration law

The Immigration Act of 1924, or Johnson–Reed Act, including the Asian Exclusion Act and National Origins Act, was a United States federal law that prevented immigration from Asia and set quotas on the number of immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. It also authorized the creation of the country's first formal border control service, the U.S. Border Patrol, and established a "consular control system" that allowed entry only to those who first obtained a visa from a U.S. consulate abroad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration reduction in the United States</span> Governmental policy and social reform in the United States

Immigration reduction refers to a government and social policy in the United States that advocates a reduction in the amount of immigration allowed into the country. Steps advocated for reducing the numbers of immigrants include advocating stronger action to prevent illegal entry and illegal migration, and reductions in non-immigrant temporary work visas. Some advocate tightening the requirements for legal immigration requirements to reduce numbers or move the proportions of legal immigrants away from those on family reunification programs to skills-based criteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration Act of 1917</span> United States law

The Immigration Act of 1917 was a United States Act that aimed to restrict immigration by imposing literacy tests on immigrants, creating new categories of inadmissible persons, and barring immigration from the Asia–Pacific region. The most sweeping immigration act the United States had passed until that time it followed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 in marking a turn toward nativism. The 1917 act governed immigration policy until it was amended by the Immigration Act of 1924; both acts were revised by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952.

Asian immigration to the United States refers to immigration to the United States from part of the continent of Asia, which includes East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Asian-origin populations have historically been in the territory that would eventually become the United States since the 16th century. The first major wave of Asian immigration occurred in the late 19th century, primarily in Hawaii and the West Coast. Asian Americans experienced exclusion, and limitations to immigration, by the United States law between 1875 and 1965, and were largely prohibited from naturalization until the 1940s. Since the elimination of Asian exclusion laws and the reform of the immigration system in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, there has been a large increase in the number of immigrants to the United States from Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration Restriction League</span>

The Immigration Restriction League was an American nativist and anti-immigration organization founded by Charles Warren, Robert DeCourcy Ward, and Prescott F. Hall in 1894. According to Erika Lee, in 1894 the old stock Yankee upper-class founders of the League were, "convinced that Anglo-Saxon traditions, peoples, and culture were being drowned in a flood of racially inferior foreigners from Southern and Eastern Europe." Established during a period of increasing anti-immigration sentiment in the United States, the League was founded by Boston Brahmins such as Henry Cabot Lodge with the purpose of preventing immigrants from Eastern Europe and Southern Europe from immigrating to the US due to a belief that they were racially inferior to Northern Europeans and Western Europeans. The League argued that the American way of life was threatened by immigration from these regions, and lobbied Washington to pass anti-immigration legislation restricting the entry of what they perceived as "undesirable" immigrants in order to uphold Old Stock Americans hegemony.

This is a list of topics related to racism:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Congressional Joint Immigration Commission</span>

The United States Immigration Commission (also known as the Dillingham Commission after its chairman, Republican Senator William P. Dillingham, was a bipartisan special committee formed in February 1907 by the United States Congress and President Theodore Roosevelt, to study the origins and consequences of recent immigration to the United States. This was in response to increasing political concerns about the effects of immigration and its brief was to report on the social, economic, and moral state of the nation. During its time in action, the Commission employed a staff of more than 300 people for over 3 years, spent better than a million dollars, and accumulated mass data.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Know Nothing</span> 1850s US nativist political party

The Know Nothings were a nativist political movement in the United States in the 1850s, officially known as the Native American Party before 1855, and afterwards simply the American Party. Members of the movement were required to say "I know nothing" whenever they were asked about its specifics by outsiders, providing the group with its colloquial name.

Nativism is the political policy of promoting or protecting the interests of native-born or indigenous people over those of immigrants, including the support of anti-immigration and immigration-restriction measures. In the United States, nativism does not refer to a movement led by Native Americans, also referred to as American Indians.

The Pacific Coast race riots were a series of riots which occurred in the United States and Canada in 1907. The violent riots resulted from growing anti-Asian sentiment among White populations during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Rioting occurred in San Francisco, Bellingham, and Vancouver. Anti-Asian rioters in Bellingham focused mainly on several-hundred Sikh workers recently immigrated from India. Chinese immigrants were attacked in Vancouver and Japanese workers were mainly targeted in San Francisco.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asian American activism</span>

Asian American activism broadly refers to the political movements and social justice activities involving Asian Americans. Since the first wave of Asian immigration to the United States, Asians have been actively engaged in social and political organizing. The early Asian American activism was mainly organized in response to the anti-Asian racism and Asian exclusion laws in the late-nineteenth century, but during this period, there was no sense of collective Asian American identity. Different ethnic groups organized in their own ways to address the discrimination and exclusion laws separately. It was not until the 1960s when the collective identity was developed from the civil rights movements and different Asian ethnic groups started to come together to fight against anti-Asian racism as a whole.

The California Joint Immigration Committee (CJIC) was a nativist lobbying organization active in the early to mid-twentieth century that advocated exclusion of Asian and Mexican immigrants to the United States.

Immigrant invasion—or similar phrases that imply that "immigrants are invading the homeland", is a rhetoric that is allegedly used by those who favor nativist, nationalist, and sometimes racist or xenophobic policies.

"Racism against Asians" refers to racist policies, discrimination against, and mistreatment of people of Asian descent by institutions and/or non-Asian people - typically in the Western world or in other countries outside Asia.

The ideology of nativism—favoring native inhabitants, as opposed to immigrants—has been very common and contentious within American politics for centuries. Nativist movements have been around since even before American independence, and have targeted a wide variety of nationalities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uncle Sam Kicks Out Chinaman</span>

The George Dee Magic Washing Machine Company commissioned Uncle Sam Kicks Out The Chinaman in 1886. Published in Chicago by Shober & Carqueville Lithograph Co. the cartoon depicts patriotic symbol Uncle Sam kicking out the Chinese in order to promote The George Dee Magic Washing Machine Company's new detergent in an effort to displace Chinese laundry operators. Above the borders of the image an advertisement in the lithograph reads:

To Whom It May Concern: This is a Liquid Washing Compound, and is FULLY GUARANTEED BETTER THAN ANYTHING EVER OFFERED TO THE PUBLIC; its constant use will not injure the cloths nor turn them yellow. For sale by the Gallon, Half-Gallon and Quart. TRY A SAMPLE AND BE SURPRISED.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Know-Nothing Riots in United States politics</span>

The term Know-Nothing Riot has been used to refer to a number of political uprisings of the Know Nothing Party in the United States of the mid-19th century. These anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic protests culminated into riots in Philadelphia in 1844; St. Louis in 1854, Cincinnati and Louisville in 1855; Baltimore in 1856; Washington, D.C., and New York City in 1857; and New Orleans in 1858.

References

  1. ↑ "International Migration, Racism, Discrimination and Xenophobia" (PDF). International Labour Office; International Organization for Migration; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. August 2001. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 March 2019.
  2. 1 2 Boissoneault, Lorraine. "How the 19th-Century Know Nothing Party Reshaped American Politics". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
  3. ↑ Ray Allen Billington, The Protestant Crusade: 1800-1860 (1938) pp 380-436. online
  4. ↑ Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and slavery: the northern Know Nothings and the politics of the 1850s (Oxford UP, 1992) pp ix-xiv.
  5. ↑ Quoted in James Fairfax McLaughlin, The life and times of John Kelly, tribune of the people (1885) pp 72-73 online
  6. ↑ Stanford M. Lyman, "Conflict and the web of group affiliation in San Francisco's Chinatown, 1850-1910." Pacific Historical Review (1974): 473-499.
  7. ↑ John Soennichsen (2011). The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. ABC-CLIO. pp. 51–57. ISBN   9780313379475.
  8. ↑ Erika Lee, At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (2003)
  9. ↑ Jeffrey Marcos Garcilazo, Traqueros: Mexican Railroad Workers in the United States, 1870-1930 (2016) excerpt
  10. ↑ Erika Lee, America for Americans (2019) p. 226.
  11. ↑ Ferguson, Edwin E. 1947. "The California Alien Land Law and the Fourteenth Amendment." California Law Review 35 (1): 61.
  12. ↑ Gary Y. Okihiro, The Columbia guide to Asian American history (Columbia University Press, 2001), p. 207.
  13. ↑ Weik, Taylor (October 11, 2022). "'Proof I was there': every Japanese American incarcerated in second world war finally named". The Guardian .
  14. ↑ The official WRA record from 1946 states it was 120,000 people. See War Relocation Authority (1946). The Evacuated People: A Quantitative Study. p. 8.. Japanese Americans that were 1/16th or less were excluded from being sent to the camps but above that was considered a threat to the United States. This number does not include people held in other camps such as those which were run by the DoJ or the Army. Other sources may give numbers which are slightly more or less than 120,000.
  15. ↑ "Japanese American internment | Definition, Camps, Locations, Conditions, & Facts". 17 May 2023.
  16. ↑ "Manzanar National Historic Site". National Park Service .
  17. ↑ John Higham, Strangers in the Land (1963), 311
  18. ↑ Divine, Robert A. (2002). America, Past and Present (8th ed.). New York: Longman. p. 752. ISBN   978-0-321-08403-3 . Retrieved 19 October 2024.
  19. ↑ Rebecca Hamlin, "Trump’s Immigration Legacy." The Forum 19#1 (2021).
  20. 1 2 "Campaign 2015: The Candidates & the World: Donald Trump on Immigration". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on February 5, 2017. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
  21. ↑ Rogers, Katie (2018-06-22). "Trump Highlights Immigrant Crime to Defend His Border Policy. Statistics Don't Back Him Up". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018. Retrieved June 24, 2018.
  22. 1 2 Maciag, Mike (2017-03-02). "The Mythical Link Between Immigrants and High Crime Rates". www.governing.com. Archived from the original on June 25, 2018. Retrieved 2018-06-24.
  23. ↑ Sahil Kapur, "Reality Check: 4 Reasons Trump's Immigration Plans Are Impractical" Archived March 17, 2017, at the Wayback Machine , Bloomberg Politics (August 8, 2015).
  24. ↑ "Trump says would raise visa fees to pay for Mexican border wall" Archived May 18, 2017, at the Wayback Machine , Reuters (August 16, 2015).
  25. ↑ Everett Marko, David (2019). "Nevertheless, They Persist: American and European Muslim Immigrants in the Era of Trump". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 39 (2): 246–258. doi:10.1080/13602004.2019.1620006. S2CID   195563923.
  26. ↑ Mallet-García, Marie L.; García-Bedolla, Lisa (2021). "Immigration Policy and Belonging: Ramifications for DACA Recipients' Sense of Belonging". American Behavioral Scientist. 65 (9): 1165–1179. doi: 10.1177/0002764221996777 . S2CID   233697192.
  27. ↑ Kerr, Ashley (8 February 2018). "President Trump's Four Pillars for Immigration Reform". The National Law Review. ISSN   2161-3362. Archived from the original on September 6, 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
  28. ↑ Piazza, James; Van Doren, Natalia (2023). "It's About Hate: Approval of Donald Trump, Racism, Xenophobia and Support for Political Violence". American Politics Research. 51 (3): 299–314. doi:10.1177/1532673X221131561. S2CID   252774439.
  29. ↑ Onwumechili, Chuka (2022). "Donald Trump's America: Communicating the Seeds of Racism, Xenophobia, & Persistent Conflict". Howard Journal of Communications. 33 (2): 115–118. doi: 10.1080/10646175.2022.2054300 . S2CID   248421157.
  30. ↑ "Factbox: U.S. report to U.N. Human Rights Council". Reuters. 5 November 2010.
  31. ↑ West, Cornel (2002). Prophesy Deliverance!: An Afro-American Revolutionary Christianity. p. 116.
  32. ↑ "Views on Race in America 2019 (Section titled 'Majorities of blacks, Hispanics and Asians say they have experienced discrimination because of their race or ethnicity')". Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project. 9 April 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
  33. ↑ Amina Khan (16 July 2021). "Police officers treat Black and white men differently. You can hear it in their tone of voice". Microsoft News, Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 8 May 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  34. ↑ "Despite skewed media image, Black men are more likely to be victimized than other groups". MSN News, USA Today . 4 October 2021. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  35. ↑ Gover, Angela R.; Harper, Shannon B.; Langton, Lynn (2020). "Anti-Asian Hate Crime During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploring the Reproduction of Inequality". American Journal of Criminal Justice. 45 (4): 647–667. doi:10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1. ISSN   1066-2316. PMC   7364747 . PMID   32837171.
  36. ↑ Huang, Junjian; Liu, Raymond (2020). "Xenophobia in America in the Age of Coronavirus and Beyond". Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology. 31 (7): 1187–1188. doi:10.1016/j.jvir.2020.04.020. PMC   7188638 . PMID   32522506.

Further reading

Historiography and memory

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