Manx grammar

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The grammar of the Manx language has much in common with related Indo-European languages, such as nouns that display gender, number and case and verbs that take endings or employ auxiliaries to show tense, person or number. Other morphological features are typical of Insular Celtic languages but atypical of other Indo-European languages. These include initial consonant mutation, inflected prepositions and verb–subject–object word order. [1]

Contents

Nouns

Gender

Manx nouns fall into one of two genders, masculine or feminine. As with Old Irish, there is evidence for the existence of a third neuter gender in Classical Manx, but neuter nouns are thought to have been gradually converted to masculine. [2]

Masculine is considered the "default" or "unmarked" gender. [3] Nouns ending in a "broad" (non-palatalised) consonant are usually masculine, as are those ending in the suffixes: -agh, -an, -ane, -ee, -er, -erey, -ey, -oo, -oon, -oor, -ys. Nouns ending in a "slender" (palatalised) consonant are usually feminine, as are those ending in the suffixes: -ag, -age, -aght, -eig, -id, -oge. Verbnouns are also usually feminine, especially those ending in -ail or -eil. [3]

Number

Nouns show singular and plural number in Manx. Plurals can be formed from the singular by adding an ending, most often -yn (lioar "book", lioaryn "books"). Other endings include -aghyn, -ee, or a consonant followed by -yn. Sometimes a plural ending replaces a singular ending, as in the case of -agh becoming -ee or -eeyn or of -ee or -ey becoming -aghyn. Some mostly monosyllabic nouns pluralise by means of internal vowel change, such as mac "son" to mec, kayt "cat" to kiyt and dooiney "man" to deiney. Manx also has a handful of irregularly formed plurals, including ben "woman" to mraane, keyrey "sheep" to kirree and slieau "mountain" to sleityn. [3]

Case

Nominative

The base form of a noun is in the nominative case (carrey "friend", caarjyn "friends").

Vocative

A nominative noun is lenited to become vocative, (charrey "friend!", chaarjyn "friends!"). This also extends to proper nouns. Moirrey, the Manx equivalent of the English name Mary, would be lenited to Voirrey, but this practice is less common for foreign names. [3] This form is commonly used in greetings (Vax veen "dear Max").

Genitive

Some mostly feminine nouns possess a distinct genitive form, usually ending in -ey, e.g. bleeaney "of a year" (nominative: blein), coshey "of a foot" (nominative: cass). Historical genitive singulars often survive in compounds and fixed expressions although no longer productive, such as thie-ollee "cowhouse" using the old genitive of ollagh "cattle" or mullagh y ching "the crown", literally "the top of the head", employing lenited king "of a head" (nominative: kione). [4] Keyrragh "of sheep" is the only distinct genitive plural, the nominative plural being kirree.

Dative

The dative case is encountered only in set expressions such as ry-chosh "on foot", where chosh is the lenited dative cosh "foot" (nominative: cass "foot"). [5] [3]

Articles

In common with the other Insular Celtic languages except Breton, Manx has a definite article but no indefinite article. The definite article takes the form yn before masculine nominative and genitive and feminine nominative nouns. This yn is often reduced to y before consonants or to 'n after grammatical words ending in a vowel. Plural nouns and feminine genitive nouns take the article ny, another archaic form of which is found in some place names as nyn. [3]

Adjectives

Number

Certain adjectives may be made plural by the addition of -ey to the singular form (ben veg "little woman", mraane veggey "little women"). In earlier versions of the language, these were used attributively, but are rarely employed in modern Manx. [3]

Degree of comparison

Adjectives ending in -agh form their comparative/superlative form by replacing this with -ee, e.g. atçhimagh "terrible" becomes atçhimee, resulting in ny s'atçhimee "more terrible" and s'atçhimee "most terrible". As in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, the comparative-superlative is commonly marked by the copula verb s in the present and by in the past. The superlative is often shown by the word nys, from Middle Irish ní as "thing that is" (cf. Modern Irish níos, past ní ba). [6] A number of adjectives form their comparative/superlative irregularly.

Irregular comparative/superlative forms of Manx adjectives
PositiveEnglishComparative/Superlative
aalinbeautifulaaley
aashageasyassey
aegyoungaa
ardhighyrjey
begsmallloo
bogsoft, moistbuiggey
bwaaghprettybwaaie
çhehhotçhoe
çhionntight, fastçhenney
çhiuthickçhee
faggysnearniessey
foddeyfar, longodjey
garrooroughgirroo
gialbright, whitegilley
giareshortgirrey
lajerstrongtroshey
leahsoonleaie
lheannwidelea
liauyrlong, talllhiurey
miegoodshare
moalslowmelley
mooarlarge, bigmoo
olkbad, evilmessey
reaghmerry, livelyreaie
roauyrfat, broadriurey
shennoldshinney
thanneythintheinney
tromeheavythrimmey
ymmodeemanylee

The comparative/superlative can also be formed using smoo "more" with the positive form, e.g. s'thrimmey = smoo trome. [3]

Verbs

Regular verbs

Manx verbs generally form their finite forms by means of periphrasis: inflected forms of the auxiliary verbs ve "to be" or jannoo "to do" are combined with the verbal noun of the main verb. Only the future, conditional, preterite and imperative can be formed directly by inflecting the main verb, but even in these tenses, the periphrastic formation is more common in Late Spoken Manx. [7] An example using the forms of tilgey "throwing" is as follows.

Manx finite verb forms: tilgey "throwing"
TensePeriphrastic form
(literal translation)
Inflected formGloss
Presentta mee tilgey
("I am throwing")
"I throw"
Imperfectva mee tilgey
("I was throwing")
"I was throwing"
Perfectta mee er jilgey
("I am after throwing") [8]
"I have thrown"
Pluperfectva mee er jilgey
("I was after throwing") [8]
"I had thrown"
Preteriteren mee tilgey
("I did throwing")
hilg mee"I threw"
Futureneeym tilgey
("I will do throwing")
tilgym"I will throw"
Conditionalyinnin tilgey
("I would do throwing")
hilgin"I would throw"
Imperativejean tilgey
("do throwing!")
tilg"throw!"
Past participletilgit"thrown"

The future and conditional tenses (and in some irregular verbs, the preterite) make a distinction between "independent" and "dependent" forms. Independent forms are used when the verb is not preceded by any particle; dependent forms are used when a particle (e.g. cha "not") does precede the verb. For example, "you will lose" is caillee oo with the independent form caillee ("will lose"), while "you will not lose" is cha gaill oo with the dependent form caill (which has undergone eclipsis to gaill after cha). Similarly "they went" is hie ad with the independent form hie ("went"), while "they did not go" is cha jagh ad with the dependent form jagh. [9] [10]

The fully inflected forms of the regular verb tilgey "throwing" are as follows. In addition to the forms below, a past participle may be formed using -it: tilgit "thrown".

Inflection of a regular Manx verb
TenseIndependentDependentRelative
Preteritehilg(same as independent)
Futuretilgym 1 , tilgmayd 2 , tilgee 3 dilgym 1 , dilgmayd 2 , dilgee 3 tilgys
Conditionaltilgin 1 , tilgagh 3 dilgin 1 , dilgagh 3
Imperativetilg(same as independent)
^1 First person singular, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant
^2 First person plural, making the use of a following subject pronoun redundant
^3 Used with all other persons, meaning an accompanying subject must be stated, e.g. tilgee eh "he will throw", tilgee ad "they will throw"

There are a few peculiarities when a verb begins with a vowel, i.e. the addition of d' in the preterite and n' in the future and conditional dependent. Below is the conjugation of aase "to grow".

Inflection of a regular Manx verb beginning with a vowel
TenseIndependentDependentRelative
Preterited'aase 1 (same as independent)
Futureaasym, aasmayd, aaseen'aasym, n'aasmayd, n'aaseeaasys
Conditionalaasin, aasaghn'aasin, n'aasagh
Imperativeaase(same as independent)
^1 d' may also be spelt j when pronounced /dʲ/[dʒ] i.e. before a slender vowel, e.g. "ate" can be either d'ee or jee.

These peculiarities extend to verbs beginning with f, e.g. faagail "to leave".

Inflection of a regular Manx verb beginning with f
TenseIndependentDependentRelative
Preterited'aag 1 (same as independent)
Futurefaagym, faagmayd, faageevaagym, vaagmayd, vaagee,
n'aagym, n'aagmayd, n'aagee
aagys
Conditionalaagin, aagaghvaagin, vaagagh, n'aagin, n'aagagh
Imperativefaag(same as independent)
^1 Again, d' may also be spelt j where appropriate.

Irregular verbs

A number of verbs are irregular in their inflection.

Inflected forms of irregular Manx verbs
InfinitivePreteriteFutureConditionalImperativePast participle
IndependentDependentIndependentDependentIndependentDependent
çheet "come"hainkdainkhiggym, higmayd, higjiggym, jigmayd, jigharrin, harraghdarrin, darraghtar
clashtyn "hear"cheayllgeayllcluinnyn, cluinnee, cluinmayd 1 gluinnyn, gluinnee, gluinmaydchluinnin, chluinnaghgluinnin, gluinnaghclashtcluinit
cur "put, give"hugdugverrym, vermayd, verderrym, dermayd, derverrin, verraghderrin, derraghcurcurrit
fakin "see"honnickvaikhee'm, hemayd, heevaikym, vaikmyd, vaikheein, heeaghvaikin, vaikaghjeeagh, cur-my-nerfaikinit
feddyn "find",
geddyn "get"
hooardooaryioym, yiowmayd, yiowvoym, vowmayd, vowyioin, yioghevoin, voghefowfeddinynt "found",
geddinynt "given"
goll "go"hiejaghhem, hemmayd, hedjem, jemmayd, jedraghin, ragh(same as independent)gow, immee
gra "say"dooyrtjirrym, jirmayd, jir
abbyrym, abbyrmyd, abbyr
jirrym, jirmayd, jir
niarrym, niarmayd, niar
n'abbyrym, n'abbyrmyd, n'abbyr
yiarrin, yiarraghniarrin, niarraghabbyrgrait
goaill "take"ghowgoym, gowmayd, gowee 2 goym, gowmayd, gowghoin, ghoghegoin, goghegowgoit
jean "do"rennee'm, neemayd, neejeanym, jeanmayd, jeanyinnin, yinnaghjinnin, jinnaghjeanjeant
^1 Future relative: clinnys
^2 Future relative: gowee

The most common and most irregular verb in Manx is ve "to be", often used as an auxiliary verb. In addition to the usual inflected tenses, ve also has a present tense. The full conjugation of ve "to be" is as follows. Generally, the personal pronoun is used (ta mee "I am"), but the emphatic pronoun is also acceptable. For instance, row oo "were you?" is grammatically correct, but it is likely to be misheard in speech as row "was". As such, row uss is often used instead. [11]

Forms of verb ve "to be"
FormIndependentDependentRelative
Presenttavel, nel
Preteritevarow
Futurebee'm, beemayd, bee(same as independent)vees
Conditionalveign, veaghbeign, beagh
Imperativebee(same as independent)

Adverbs

Manx adverbs can be formed from adjectives by means of the word dy (from Middle Irish go "with, until"), e.g. mie "good" to dy mie "well", gennal "cheerful" to dy gennal "cheerfully". This dy is not used when preceded by such words as ro "too" and feer "very" or followed by dy liooar "enough", e.g. feer vie "very good, very well", gennal dy liooar "cheerful(ly) enough". The prepositional phrase for "home(wards)" is formed with dy "to" and the noun balley "place, town, homestead" to give dy valley, while the noun thie "house, home" can be used unchanged as an adverb to convey the same meaning. [3]

Adverbs of location and motion

In common with its Goidelic sister languages, Manx has a number of adverbs corresponding to English "up" and "down", the meaning of which depend upon such things as motion or lack thereof and starting point in relation to the speaker.

Manx adverbs expressing "up" and "down"
StationaryMotion towards speakerMotion away from speaker
aboveheoseneoseseose
belowheeseneesesheese

Examples of practical usage are Ta dooinney heese y traid "There's a man down the street" and Ta mee goll sheese y traid "I'm going down the street", Jean drappal neese "Climb up (towards me)" and Jean drappal seose "Climb up (away from me)".

Likewise, Manx possesses various other single words that distinguish between stationary location and direction or movement towards or away from the speaker, e.g. shiar "to the east, eastwards" and niar "from the east", sthie "in, inside" (location) and stiagh "in, inside" (direction), wass "this side, here", noon "from this side, to the other side" and noal "over to this side, over to the other side". [3]

Pronouns

Personal

Technically, Manx has a T-V distinction where the second person singular pronoun oo is used to show familiarity while the second person plural shiu is used as a respectful singular as well as with plural referents. Because of the solidarity of the small speech community, however, Manx speakers would automatically use oo when addressing another individual Manx speaker. [3]

In common with Irish and Scottish Gaelic, in addition to its regular personal pronouns, Manx has also a series used for emphasis. Under certain phonological circumstances, these can be used as unemphatic pronouns, e.g. "you were not" is cha row uss[xaˈrauʊs] as cha row oo[xaˈrauu(ː)] sounds too similar to cha row[xaˈrau] "was not".

Manx personal pronouns
PersonRegularEmphatic
First singularmeemish
Second singularoouss
Third singularmasculineeheshyn
feminineeeish
First pluralshinshinyn
Second pluralshiushiuish
Third pluraladadsyn

Reflexive pronouns are formed with the addition of -hene, which can also indicate emphasis, e.g. mee-hene "myself", oo-hene "yourself". [3]

Interrogative

Manx interrogative pronouns include quoi "who?", cre "what?" and c'red "what?". [3]

Indefinite

The Manx equivalent of English "-ever" or "any-" is erbee, e.g. quoi erbee "whoever, anyone". Ennagh is used like English "some-", e.g. peiagh ennagh "someone" (with peiagh "person"). [3]

Determiners

Possessive

A gender distinction is made in the third person singular by means of lenition following masculine e "his, its" and lack of lenition after feminine e "her, its".

Manx possessive determiners
singularplural
1st personmynyn
2nd persondtynyn
3rd personmasculineenyn
femininee

An alternative to using the possessive pronouns is to precede a noun with the definite article and follow it with the inflected form of ec "at" to show the person, e.g. yn thie aym "my house" (literally "the house at me") instead of my hie "my house". This is especially useful in the plural, where all persons share one possessive pronoun, e.g. yn thie oc "their house", as opposed to nyn dhie "our/your/their house".

Possessive determiners are used to indicate the object of a verbnoun, e.e. T'eh dy my akin "He sees me". E is dropped after the particle dy, although the mutation or lack thereof remains, and dy combines with nyn to give dyn, e.g. T'eh dy akin "He sees him", T'eh dy fakin "He sees her", T'eh dyn vakin "He sees us/you/them". [3]

Prepositions

Like the other Insular Celtic languages, Manx has so-called inflected prepositions, contractions of a preposition with a pronominal direct object, as the following common prepositions show. Note the sometimes identical form of the uninflected preposition and its third person singular masculine inflected form.

Conjugation of Manx prepositions using pronominal ending
SingularPlural
1st
person
2nd
person
3rd person1st
person
2nd
person
3rd
person
masc.fem.
ass
"out of"
assymassydassassjeeassdooinassdiuassdoo, assdaue
ayns
"in"
aynymaynydaynaynjeeayn, ayndooinayndiuayndoo, ayndaue
da
"to"
doudhytdajee 2 dooindiudaue
dys, gys 1
"to"
hymhoodhuggeyhuic(k)hooinhiuhuc
ec
"at"
aymaydecheyeckainorroooc
er
"on"
orrymorterurreeorrinerriuorroo
fo
"under"
foymfoydfofoeefoinfeuefoue
gollrish
"like"
gollrymgollrytgollrishgollreegollringollriugollroo
harrish
"over"
harrymharrydharrishharreeharrinharriuharroo, harrystoo
jeh
"of"
jeemjeedjehj'ee 2 jinjiujeu
lesh
"with"
lhiamlhiatleshlheelhienlhiulhieu
marish
"with" 3
marymmayrtmarishmareemarinmeriumaroo
mysh
"about"
moommoodmyshmooeemooinmiumoo, mymboo
rish
"to" 4
rhymrhytrishr'ee 5 rooinriuroo
roish
"before"
roymroydroishroee, rhymbeeroinreueroue, rhymboo
shaghey
"past"
shaghymshaghydshagheyshagheeshaghinshaghiushaghoo
veih, voish
"from"
voymvoydvoish, veihvoeevoinveuevoue
^1 Dys is the usual word today. Gys is literary. This is also the inflection of hug "to".
^2 J'ee "of her" is distinguished from homophonous jee "to her" in spelling by means of an apostrophe.
^3 Sometimes, these forms, apart from mayrt are written with a circumflex over the first vowel, e.g. mârish, mêriu.
^4 Rish is equivalent to various different prepositions in English depending on context, e.g. clashtyn rish "listen to", caggey rish "fight against", rish tammylt " for a while".
^5 The spelling r'ee distinguishes it from the homophonic noun ree "king".

In addition to the above "simple" prepositions, Manx has a number of prepositional phrases based on a noun; being based on nouns, the possessive personal pronouns are used to refer to what would in English be pronominal prepositional objects. This also happens in English phrases such as "for my sake". [3]

Conjugation of Manx prepositional phrases using possessive pronouns
1st person
singular
2nd person
singular
3rd person singularPlural
masc.fem.
erskyn
"above"
er-my-skyner-dty-skyner-e-skyner-e-skyner-nyn-skyn
mychione
"concerning"
my-my-chionemy-dty-chionemy-e-chionemy-e-kionemy-nyn-gione
son
"for the sake of"
er-my-honer-dty-honer-e-honer-e-soner-nyn-son
lurg
"after"
my lurgdty lurge lurge lurgnyn lurg
noi
"against"
m'oidt'oin'oiny hoinyn oi
trooid
"through"
my hrooiddty hrooide trooidurreenyn drooid

Alternative conjugation patterns are sometimes found with these more complex prepositions using inflected prepositions, e.g. mychione aym for my-my-chione "concerning me", son ain "for our sake" instead of er-nyn-son "for our/your/their sake". [3]

Conjunctions

The main coordinating conjunctions in Manx are as "and", agh "but" and ny "or". Subordinating conjunctions include choud('s) "while", derrey "until", dy "that; so that", er-y-fa "because", ga dy/nagh "although (affirmative/negative)" and tra "when". My "if" introduces conditional clauses as do myr "as if" and mannagh "unless". [3]

Numbers

Manx numbers are traditionally vigesimal, as seen below. Some speakers use a more modern decimal version of some numbers, in a similar way to Irish and Scottish Gaelic, for example, to simplify the teaching of arithmetic. [3]

Manx numbers
ValueCardinalOrdinal
TraditionalModern
0neunhee, veg
1un, nane 1 chied
2daa, jees 1 nah
3treetrass
4kiarekiarroo
5queigqueigoo
6sheysheyoo
7shiaghtshiaghtoo
8hoghthoghtoo
9nuynuyoo
10jeihjeihoo
11nane jeignane jeigoo
12daa yeigdaa yeigoo
13tree jeigtrass jeig
14kiare jeigkiarroo jeig
15queig jeigqueiggoo jeig
16shey jeigsheyoo jeig
17shiaght jeigshiaghtoo jeig
18hoght jeighoghtoo jeig
19nuy jeignuyoo jeig
20feedookiare
21nane as feedfeed-nanechied as feed
22daa as feedfeed-jeesnah as feed
23tree as feedfeed-treetrass as feed
30jeih as feedtreeadjeihoo as feed
31nane jeig as feedtreead-nanechied jeig as feed
32daa yeig as feedtreead-jeesnah jeig as feed
33tree jeig as feedtreead-treetrass jeig as feed
40daeedkiaraddaeedoo
50jeih as daeed, lieh cheeadqueigadjeihoo as daeed
60tree feedsheyadtree feedoo
70tree feed as jeihshiaghtadtree feedoo as jeih
80kiare feedhoghtadkiare feedoo
90tree feed as jeihnuyadtree feedoo as jeih
100keeadkeeadoo
1,000jeih keead, milley, thousanejeih cheeadoo, millioo, thousaneoo
1,000,000millioonmillioonoo
^1 Un and daa are used for counting objects (daa ghooinney "two men"). Nane and jees mean "number one" and "number two" in a more abstract, mathematical sense, and are used for phone numbers and arithmetic.

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References

  1. Strazny, Philipp (2005). Encyclopedia of Linguistics. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. p. 183. ISBN   9781135455224.
  2. Wheeler, Max (2017). "Survey of grammatical gender in Classical Manx". Academia.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Kewley Draskau, Jennifer (2008). Practical Manx. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN   9781846311314.
  4. Thomson 1992, 118–19; Broderick 1993, 239–40
  5. Goodwin, Edmund; Thomson, Robert (1966). First Lessons in Manx. Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh. p. 50.
  6. Gell, John (1989). Conversational Manx. St. Judes: Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh. p. 34. ISBN   1870029100.
  7. Broderick 1984–86, 75–82; 1993, 250, 271; Thomson 1992, 122
  8. 1 2 The particle er is identical in form to the preposition er "on"; however, it is etymologically distinct, coming from Old Irish íar "after" (Williams 1994, 725).
  9. This contrast is inherited from Old Irish, which shows such pairs as beirid ("(s)he carries") vs. ní beir ("(s)he does not carry"), and is found in Scottish Gaelic as well, e.g. gabhaidh ("will take") vs. cha ghabh ("will not take"). In Modern Irish, the distinction is found only in irregular verbs (e.g. chonaic ("saw") vs. ní fhaca ("did not see").
  10. Broderick 1984–86, 1:92; 1992, 250; Thomson 1992, 122
  11. Douglas, Mona (1935). Manx Lessons.