Maithili grammar

Last updated

This page describes the grammar of Maithili language, which has a complex verbal system, nominal declension with a few inflections, and extensive use of honoroficity. It is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Maithili people and is spoken in the Indian state of Bihar with some speakers in Jharkhand and nearby states.The language has a large number of speakers in Nepal too, which is second in number of speakers after Bihar. [1]

Contents

Maithili has the following characteristic morphological features:

Phonology

Vowels

Front Central Back
shortlongshortlongshortlong
Closed Script ɪ ʊ
Rom.iīuū
Mid Script e ə ~ ɐ əː अ꣱ [2] /अ२ o
Rom.eēaoō
Open Script æ ~ ɛ a ɔ

अ꣱ [2]

Rom.æ/êă/äāå
Diphthongs Scriptəɪ̯ əʊ̯
Rom.aiau
Standard Colloquial - Common Pronunciation
छि' / achi / - अइछ / aich / 'is'
धु' / madhu / - मध / maudh / 'honey'
बालु' / bālu / - बाल / bāul / 'sand'

Only extra short i and u have been applicable for this rule, however recently short i and u have started to observe same pattern, though it is very scattered, and non-standard-

वि / rabi / - रइब / raib / 'Sunday'

This phenomenon is observed only in northern dialects, in southern dialects it is often maintained or even lengthened.

achi→(a)chī
madhu→madhū
bālu→bālū
rabi→rabī

The following diphthongs are present: [4]

अय़/ / əe̯ / ~ /ɛː/ - अय़सन/सन /aisan/ ~ /êsan/ 'like this'
अव़/ / əo̯ / ~ /ɔː/- चव़मुख/चॏमुख /caumukh/ ~ /cåmukh/ 'four faced'
अऎ /ꣾ əe̯ / - अऎलाह/लाह /aelah/ 'came'
अऒ/ / əo̯ / - अऒताह/ताह /aotah/ 'will come'
आइ / aːi̯ / - आइ /āi/ 'today'
आउ / aːu̯ / - आउ /āu/ 'come please'
आऎ / aːe̯ / - आऎल /āel/ 'came'
आऒ / aːo̯ / - आऒब /āob/ 'will come'
यु/इउ / iu̯/ - घ्यु/घिउ /ghiu/ 'ghee'
यॆ/इऎ / ie̯ / - यॆह/इऎह /ieh/ 'only this' (dialectical variation of इहꣿ/यꣿह)
यॊ/इऒ / io̯ / - कह्यो/कहिऒ /kahio/ 'any day'
वि/उइ / ui̯ / - द्वि/दुइ /dui/ 'two'
वॆ/उऎ /ue̯/ - वॆह/उऎह /ue:h/ 'only that' (dialectical variation of उहꣿ/वꣿह)

There are some graphemes, borrowed from Sanskrit, which are written as pronounced in Sanskrit-

LetterSans. Pron.Rom.Maithili Pron.
r̥/ṛr̩/rɪ
r̩ːr̥̄/ṝr̩ː/riː
l̥/ḷl̩/lɪ
ae̯ː / aːɪ̯various
ao̯ː / aːʊ̯various

Consonants

Maithili has four classes of stops, one class of affricate, which is generally treated as a stop series, related nasals, fricatives and approximant.

Labial Dental/
Alveolar
Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal unaspirated Script m n ( ɳ ) [5] ( ɲ ) [6] ŋ
Rom.mnñ
aspirated Script म्ह [7] न्ह [7] ( ɳʱ ) ण्ह [7] ( ɲʱ ) ञ्ह [7] ŋʱ ङ्ह [7]
Rom.mhnhṇhñhṅh
Plosive/
Affricate
voiceless unaspiratedScript p t ʈ k
Rom.ptck
aspiratedScriptʈʰtɕʰ
Rom.phthṭhchkh
voiced unaspiratedScript b d ɖ ɡ
Rom.bdjg
aspiratedScriptɖʱdʑʱɡʱ
Rom.bhdhḍhjhgh
Fricative voicelessScript( ɸ ~ f ) ः/ष् s ( ʂ ) ( ɕ ) ( x ) ः/ष्-( h )*
Rom.fsṣ/sś/sx
voicedScript( ʑ ) ɦ
Rom.zh
Rhotic unaspiratedScript ɾ ~ r ( ɽ ) ड़
Rom.r
aspiratedScriptर्ह [7] (ɽʱ) ढ़
Rom.rhṛh
Lateral Script l
Rom.l
Approximant Script( ʋ ~ w ) ( j )
Rom.vy

These non-syllabic vowels in Maithili- e̯, o̯ written in Devanagari as य़, व़. Most of the times, these are written without nukta.

Stress

Stress is not as strong in Maithili as in English. [1] [8] It is useful for determining the pronunciation of अ [a] though. The stress is not indicated in writing in native scripts, though indicated in this section.

Rule of the Short Antepenultimate [8]

This peculiar rule was first observed by Hoernle, but properly described by Grierson. It is a very important and essential rule for Maithili and other Bihari languages.

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns in Maithili can be roughly characterized into four genders- Masculine, Feminine, Neuter and Common. [11] Unmarked nouns can be of any gender. Marked nouns are those nouns, which can be distinguished by its suffix. Marked nouns are mostly either Masculine-neuter or Feminine.(Masculine and neuter, and sometimes even common gender are distinguished, if the word is of tatsama origin). There is no grammatical gender however, i.e. nouns can be distinguished by the suffix in the marked nouns, and overall by the origin of the word, but that doesn't affect other parts of speech. (There are some forms, but are optional and obsolete, and are generally ignored in recent times). The only instance, where grammatical agreement occurs are adjectives, which are also optional, and in spoken language, often ignored altogether.

Similarly, grammatical number is also absent. There are some forms of plural present, but there is no grammatical distinction. Periphrastic plural is used, but again there is no grammatical distinction.

Many Maithili nouns usually take forms in weak (ending in a consonant, a short vowel, or an extra short vowel) and strong stem (ending in long vowels). Some take form only in weak stem and some in strong stem.

The following table shows a general view of them. Obsolete and old forms are shown within parentheses, in the stem ending ending section.

Key: M- Masculine, F- Feminine, N- Neuter gender ∅- No addition to the stem, ×- No form exists

StemGenderStem EndingsExamplesComments [12]
WeakStrongWeakStrongTranslation
∅/-aMNF∅, (-u)×, (-ō)लोक lok, घर ghar, बात bātpeople, house, talkF not original, original ending collapsed.
MN-ā, (-ō)घोड़ ghōḍ, लोह lōhघोड़ा ghōḍā, लोहा lōhāhorse, ironFormed out of MN suffix -aka.
F∅, -i, (-u)×,-ī (optional), (+ō)बाँह bā̃h/बाँहि' bā̃hi, भूल bhūl/‌ भूलि' bhūliबाँही bā̃hīshoulder, mistakeF not original, overt suffix applied.
×, (-u)-ā, (+ō)सभा sabhā, जनता janatā, माता mātāassembly, people, motherOriginal -ā. Also includes original -r̥(ā).
MN×पिता pitā, नेता nētāfather, leaderOriginal r̥ (ā).
-iF-i**दूरि' dūri, माटि' māṭi, भुइँ bhuĩदूरी dūrī, माटी maṭī, भुईँ bhuī̃distance, soil, earthOriginal F -ī, -i, -ini, -āni, ā, -ikā and iyā. For original -ā, original ending replaced.
-iMN-iनाति nāti, (अभि)मानि (abhi)maniनाती nātī, (अभि)मानी (abhi)manīgrandson (through daughter), proudOriginal -ī (in) suffix, and some original MN -iya, -ika, -r̥̄(ka) as well as MN -r̥(ā/r̥).
MNF×*रवि ravi, पानि pāni*sun, waterOriginal -i, and MN -iya.
MNF×खरी kharī/खड़ी khaḍī, मोती mōtīchalk, pearlOriginal F -ī, and MNF -ika/ikā, -iya/iyā.
-uMF-u**/∅मामु' māmu/ माम mām, नाउ nāu, पुतोहु' putōhu/ पुतोह putōhमामू māmū, नाऊ nāū, पुतोहू putōhūmaternal uncle (mother's brother), barber, daughter-in-lawOriginal MFN -u and F -ū, as well as MFN -uka/ukā and MN -a (not in the last MFN class -u stem)
N×*मधु' madhu/ मध madh*honey
-uMNF-u×*आँसु ā̃su, वसु vasu*a tear, the vasus (a class of Vedic deities)
MNF×डाकू dakū, उजाड़ू ujāḍū, मॆहरारू mehrārūdacoit, destroyer, wife
×साबे sābēFormed out of merging of phonemes. Rare.
भादो bhādōa month name in Hindu calendar

Forms of nouns

Nouns in Maithili also have a peculiar long form. This long form denotes several meanings-

  1. It denotes diminutive or often low honour meaning.
  2. It also denotes definite nature of the noun.
  3. For proper nouns, neuter and inanimate, it signifies familiarity and definiteness (like definite article), it doesn't have a strong diminutive meaning, but is still considered unfit for use outside a narrative, such as in title, as a definite article does.
  4. For personal names, it signifies both familiarity and diminutive.

This Long form is formed by adding the आ -ā suffix to the ending.

  • Glides य [y] and व [w] often occur between the stem and the suffix.
  • Stems in इ' -i and उ' -u are taken as इ -i and उ -u.
  • All the stem endings in ई -ī, ऊ -ū, ए -ē and ओ -ō are shortened to इ -i, उ -u, ऎ -e and ऒ -o, when the suffix is added.
  • The stems in अ -a/∅, ओ -ō and उ/उ' -u/u take the suffix (अ)वा -(a)wā (optional in ओ -o and उ/उ' -u/u ending stem) when masculine-neuter and इया -iyā when feminine. Stems in आ -ā take the suffix as (अ)वा -(a)wā, irrespective of gender.
  • Stem endings in अ/∅ -a/∅ are made अ -a when the suffix is added.
  • These long forms can be made extra long by adding the आ -ā suffix again to the long form. In this process stems in अ -a/∅ form the extra long form as अववा -awa, which is always contracted to ॵवा -auwā. Stems in इ -i and उ -u, of any length, form the long form as इयवा -iyawā and उअवा uawā respectively, which are optionally contracted to ईया -īyā and ऊआ ūā respectively.

This is a table along with examples-

StemWordLong formExtra long formTranslation
∅/-aघर ghar, घोड़ ghōḍ, लोह lōhघरवा gharawā, घॊड़वा ghoḍawā, लॊहवा lohaघरॏवा gharauwā, घॊड़ॏवा ghōḍauwā, लॊहॏवा lōhauwāhouse, horse, iron
बात bāt, बाँह bā̃h/बाँहि' bā̃hiबऻतिया bătiyā, [13] बऻँहिया bẵhiyā [13] बऻतियवा/बऻतीवा bătiyā/bătīwā, [13] बऻँहियवा/बऻँहीवा bẵhiyā/bẵhīwā [13] talk, shoulder
सभा sabhā, बूना/बुन्दा būnā/bundā, नेता nētāसभवा sabhawā, बुनवा/बुँदवा bunawā/bũdawā, नेतवा netaसभॏवा sabhauwā, बुनॏवा/बुँदॏवा bunauwā/bũdauwā, नेतॏवा netauwāassembly, drop/zero, leader
-i/i/īभुइँ bhuĩ, माटि' māṭi, नाति nāti, रवि ravi, पानि pāni, मोती mōtīभुइँया bhuĩyā, मऻटिया măṭiyā, [13] नऻतिया nătiyā, [13] रविया raviyā, पऻनिया păniyā, [13] मॊतिया motiyaभुइँअवा/भुईँवा bhuĩyawā/bhuī̃wā, मऻटियवा/मऻटीवा măṭiyawā/măṭīwā, [13] नऻतियवा/नऻतीवा nătiyawā/nătīwā, [13] रवियवा/रवीवा raviyawā/ravīwā, पऻनियवा/पऻनीवा păniyawā/pănīwā, [13] मॊतिया/मॊतीवा motiyawā/motīwāearth, soil, grandson( through daughter), sun, pearl
-u/u/ūमामु' māmu, नाउ nāu, पुतोहु' putōhu, आँसु ā̃su, डाकू dākūमऻमुआ mămuā/ मऻमवा mămawā, [13] नऻउवा/नॏवा năuwā [13] /nauwā, पुतॊहिया putohiyā, ॴँसुआ ẵsuā, [13] डऻकुआ dăkuāमऻमुअवा/मऻमूआ/मऻमॏवा mămuawā/mămūwā/mămauwā, [13] नऻउअवा/नऻऊवा năuawā [13] /năūwā, पुतॊहियवा/पुतॊहीया putohiyawā/putohīyā, ॴँसुअवा/ॴँसूवा ẵsuawā/ẵsūwā, [13] डऻकुअवा/डऻकूवा dăkuawā, dăkūwāmaternal uncle (mother's brother), barber, daughter-in-law, tear
ēसाबे sābēसऻबॆआ/सऻबॆया săbe(y)ā [13] सऻबॆयवा/सऻबेवा săbeyawā/ sabēwā [13]
ōभादो bhādōभऻदॊआ/भऻदवा bhădoā/bhăda [13] भऻदोवा/भऻदॏवा bhădōwā/bhădauwā [13] the month bhādrapada

Nominal Declension

Nouns are inflected for several cases, some of them are fusional, and some are formed with case markers (post-positional).

StemNom.Obl.Erg. [14] Instr.Gen. [15] Loc.
-अ a/∅

घर ghar, नेना nēnā

-एँ ẽ

घरेँ gharē̃, नेनेँ nēnē̃

-अक ak

घरक gharak, नेनाक nēnāk

-ए e

घरे gharē, कहले kaha

-आ ā-एँ ẽ [16] / -आँ ā̃

घोड़ेँ/घोड़ाँ ghōḍē̃/ghōdā̃, कहलेँ/ कहलाँ kahalē̃/ kahalā̃

-एँ ẽ

घोड़ेँ ghōḍē̃, कहलेँ kahalē̃

-आक āk/ अक ak घोड़ाक/ घोड़क ghōḍāk/ ghoḍak, कहलाक/ कहलक kahalāk/ kahalak
-र/ड़/ल/न/म/ब

r/ṛ/l/n/m/b (a/∅) [17]

घोड़ ghōḍ/घोड़ा ghōḍā, कहल kahal

+आ ā

घोड़ा ghōḍā, कहला kaha

Other vocalic stems

नदि' nadi, स्त्री strī

+एँ ẽ, ँ ̃ (nasalisation) नदिएँ/ नदीँ nadĩ/ nadiẽ, स्त्रीँ/ स्त्रिएँ strī̃ striẽ+एँ ẽ

नदिएँ nadiẽ, स्त्रिएँ striẽ

+क k नदीक/नदिक nadīk/ nadik, स्त्रीक/ स्त्रिक strīk/ strik+ए e नदिए nadie

"-" indicates addition to the stem, "+" indicates addition additional to the stem.

Old Maithili Declension
StemNom.-Acc.Erg./Instr.Instr.-Abl.-Dat.Gen.Gen.-Dat.Loc.
sg.pl.sg.pl.sg.pl.sg.pl.
Com.Diph.Asp.Com.Diph.Asp.
-अ a/∅-(अ)न/नि (a)n/ni-एँ ē̃, nasal-isation,

-एन/ण*ēn/ṇ*

-अइँ ahĩ-अहिँ aĩ-एहि ehi, -अन्हि anhi-(अ)क (a)k -(अ)ह ah, -(अ)स/स्स* (a)s/ss*-आँ(क) ā̃(k), आह āh, -आन/ण ān/ṇ-ए e, -इत it-अइ ai-अहि ahi-एहु ehu, -आँ ā̃
-आ ā-एँ ē̃, nasal-isation
-आ ā (fem.)-(अ)हि (a)hi -(अ)न्हि (a)nhi-(आ)हु āhu, -आँ ā̃
-इ-ई ī, -इन/इनि in/ini+(stem lengthened) ह‌ h, +(stem lengthened) न/ण n/ṇ
-उ-ऊ ū, -उन/उनि un/uni
Other vocalic stems-न/नि n/ni

Onlyto thefirst three stems,declension is added to the stem.

  • Prakrit and Sanskrit endings are marked with *. These are found only in loanwords from those languages.
  • Locative -ए ē is not used for animate nouns.
  • When suffixes with initial vowel are added to the stem, the stem is shortened in length, such as स्त्रिएँ striē̃ (by the woman) from स्त्री strī (woman), भाषहि bhāṣahi (in the language) from भाषा bhāṣā (language).
  • Some old Maithili forms are not found today in direct use, but most of them can be found in limited roles-
    • The nominative plural suffix -(अ)न/नि (a)n/ni is found in some found in the honorific forms of pronouns such as हुनि huni (he/she-Hon.), कनिका kanikā (whose -Hon.), as well as some plural markers, such as लॊकनि lokaniandॴरनि ărani. It is still present in Bhojpuri , and therefore in the western Maithili dialects, it is still found.
    • The instrumental plural suffix -(अ)न्हि (a)nhi is used in some honorofic stems of verbs, such as कहलिऎन्हि' kahaliainhi (I said (to him/her-Hon.), and सुनथीन्हि'sunathīnhi (he/she-Hon. listens).
    • Plural genitive suffix -आह āh/(stem lengthened) + ह h is used for forming the 3rd person honorific form of simple past intransitive verbs, such as सुतलाह sutalāh (he/she-Hon. slept).
    • Both singular and plural genitive suffix -(अ/आ)ह (a/ā)h, and instrumental and locative plural suffixes -(ए/अ)हि (ē/a)hi, and -(ए/अ)हु (ē/a)hu as well as the aspirated suffixes of instrumental and locative singular -अहि, -अहिँ are used to form adverbs and adverbial nouns, such as पछिमाहा pachimāhā (the western one), धीमहि dhīmahi (slowly).
    • Number was not so clearly marked even in Old Maithili, therefore they were used interchangeably with singular.

Gender

Gender in Maithili is generally not in agreement, though it can be identified through suffixes. Some masculine nouns are converted to feminine using suffixes, others are common for both the genders. Neuter is sometimes separate from Masculine. Some neuters are diminutive and are marked like feminine. Both tadbhava and tatsama suffixes are used for different words of different origin.

StemOriginGenderExampleFeminine/ MasculineCommonNeuter
SuffixExampleSuffixExampleSuffixExample
-अ a/∅Tats.MNसुन्दर

गौर

ई/आ (F)सुन्दरी

गौरा/गौरी

सुन्दर

गौर

Same as neuter
इ' (F)सुन्दरि'

गौरि'

Tad.MNगोर

बड्ड/ बड़

बाघ

गोरि'

बड़ि'

गोर

बड़

Mइनि॑बाघिनि'
Fबात-
बाँह/ बाँहि'
-आ āTats.Fलता
Tad.MNघोड़ाघोड़ी∅/ आघोड़/ घोड़ाSame as neuter
-ई/इTats./ Tad.Mमाली/मालिइनि'मालिनि'इ/ इन्मालि/ मालिन्इन्हस्तिन्
-ऋ/आTats./ Tad.MN (Some F also)कर्ता

नेता

री/ रि'कर्त्री/कर्त्रि'

नेत्री/ नेत्रि'

इन्कर्त्रिन्इन्/ आर्कर्त्रिन्/ कर्तार्

Adpositions

The aforementioned inflectional case system only goes so far on its own, and rather serves as that upon which is built a system of agglutinative suffixes or particles known as postpositions or Case markers. It is their use with a noun or verb that necessitates the noun taking the oblique case, and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" then lies.

Case-markers
CaseMarkerExampleEnglishExplanationOld forms and dialectical variation
Nominative नेना nēnāघोड़/घोड़ा ghōḍ/ghōḍāघर gharboy

horsehouse

marks the subject
Accusative marks the direct object (definite and animate are only marked)
केँ kē̃ [18] , (see below)नेना केँ nēnā kē̃

घोड़ा केँ ghōḍā kē̃घर केँ ghar kē̃

क◌ꣿँ kaĩ, काँ kā̃, कोँ kō̃, त ta
Dative to the boy/ horse/ housemarks the indirect object (can also mark the subject [19] )dative subjects; dative subject
Ergative (Non-standard, only in Old Maithili and southern dialects)-एँ ē̃, ने nēनेनेँ, नेना ने nēnē̃, nēnā nē

घोड़ेँ, घोड़ा ने ghōḍē̃, ghōḍā nēघरेँ, घर ने gharē̃, ghar nē

marks the subject for transitive verbs, only present in some Southern dialects
Instrumental -एँ ē̃नेनेँnēnē̃

घोड़ेँ ghōḍē̃घरेँ gharē

with the boy/ horse// housemarks the instrument of the action; "with", "using", "by"स◌ꣿ saĩ, सोँ sō̃, सॏँ saĩ, ते tē, त ta
Instrumental- Ablative सँ꣱ så̃ [20] नेना सँ꣱ nēnā så̃

घोड़ा सँ꣱ ghōḍā så̃घर सँ꣱ ghar så̃

with/from the boy/

horse/house

marks the instrument of the action; "with", "using", "by", ablative, and perlative marker; "from", "through", "along"
Genitive -(अ)क (a)k, केर kēr, क/कॆ ka/keनेनाक, नेना केर, नेना कॆ nēnāk, nēnā kēr, nēnā ke

घोड़ाक, घोड़ा केर, घोड़ा कॆ ghōḍāk, ghōḍā kēr, ghōḍā keघरक, घर केर, घर कॆ gharak, ghar kēr, ghar ke

boy's

of the horse/house

shows possession;कॊ ko, कु ku, करु karu, कहु kahu
Locative -ए ēघरे gharēin the houseshows something is in/on/at something;
Inessive मे mē [18] नेना मे nēnā mē

घोड़ा मे ghōḍā mēघर मे ghar mē

in the boy/ horse/

house

shows something is in/inside something;मोँ mō̃, मँ må̃, त ta
Adessive पर parनेना पर nēnā par

घोड़ा पर ghōḍā parघर पर ghar par

on the boy/ horse/ houseshows something is on/at something;पे pē, परि pari/pair

Definiteness is also marked in Maithili using prepositions and postpositions. The accusative marker kē̃ केँ is not used always, it is used in specific conditions [1] -

PrepositionPostposition
AccusativeDative
AnimateIndefinite+केँ kē̃-केँ kē̃
Indefinite specificएकटा/एक गोट ēkaṭā/ ēk gōṭ(ā)-
DefiniteDemonstratives are used
InanimateIndefinite
Indefinite specificएकटा/एक गोट ēkaṭā/ ēk gōṭ(ā)-
DefiniteDemonstratives are used+केँ kē̃

Some other postpositions are-

Case namePostposition
Allative दक daka
Beneficativeला, लेल, लगि lā, lēl, lagi
Terminative तक, ला tak, lā
Abessive बिनु binu
Semblative जकाँ , सोँ jakā̃, sõ
Possessive [21] Masculine-Neuter objectक꣱, र꣱ kå, rå
Feminine object (optional)कि, रि ki, ri
DualPlural
CommonOnly for honorific and animate
Both post-position and prepositionदुनु dunu, जुग/युग jug/e̯ug, जुगल/युगल jugal/e̯ugal, जोड़ा jōḍāसभ sabh, सबहि' sabahi (most common plural suffix)
Only post-positionद्वय dvayगण gaṇa, आरु' āru/āur, आरनि ārani,जन jana, लॊकनि lokani, लोक lōk
Only preposition [22] दू/दुइ dū/duiबहुत bahut, बड्ड/बड़baḍḍ/båḍ, कतेको katēkō
Post-positions marking completenessदू/दुइ dū/dui + गो’/ गोटा/ गोट gō/ gōṭā/ gōṭगो’/ गोटा/ गोट gō/ gōṭā/ gōṭ, केओ kēōलोकनि lokani
Postpositions marking numeralsगो’/ गोटा/ गोट gō/ gōṭā/ gōṭ

Pronouns

Pronouns in Maithili are declined in similar way to nominals. However, genetic case has a different form in most of the pronouns.

First and Second Person Pronouns [1]

Case nameFirst PersonSecond Person
ExclusiveInclusive (Plural)First Grade HonourHonoroficHigh-Honorofic
Nominativeहम hamNormally Declined अपना सभ apanā sabhतोँह tō̃hअहाँ ahā̃Declined Normally अपने apa
Accusative-Dative-Obliqueहमरा hamaraतॊहरा/ तोरा tōharā/ tōrāअहाँ केँ ahā̃ kē̃
Instrumentalहमरेँ hamarē̃तोहरेँ tōharē̃अहेँ ahē̃
Ergativeहम्मेँ hammē̃तोएँ/ तोहेँ tōē̃/ tōhē̃
Genitiveहमर

hamar

अपना सभक apana sabhतोहर/तोर tōhar/ tōrअहाँक ahā̃k

Third Person Pronouns [1]

Case nameProximateDistant
First Grade HonourNeuterHonoroficFirst Grade HonourNeuterHonorofic
Nominativeई īए ē, हिनि hiniऊ ū, वा vā(Non-standard)ओ ō, हुनि huni
Accusative-Dative-Obliqueऎकरा ekaऎहि ehi, अथि athiहिनका hinaऒकरा okaऒहि ohiहुनका huna
Instrumentalऎकरेँ ekarē̃एँ ē̃, येँ yē̃ (i̯ē̃)हिनकेँ hinakē̃ऒकरेँ okarē̃वेँ/ उएँ wē̃ (u̯ē̃)हुनकेँ hunkē̃
Ergativeयेँ yē̃ (i̯ē̃)येँ yē̃ (i̯ē̃), हिनिँ hinī̃वेँ/ उएँ wē̃ (u̯ē̃)
Genitiveएकर ēkarहिनकर hinakar, हिनक hinakओकर ōkarहुनकर hunakar, हुनक hunak

Verbs

Conjugation of a transitive verb "कह" /kəɦ/ 'to tell'.

SubjectObjectPresentPastFutureImperativeOptativeConditionalRemote Imperative
First
SecondHONकही [kəɦiː]कहली [kəɦəliː]कहब [kəɦəb]कहू [kəɦuː]कही [kəɦiː]कहितहुँ [kəɦɪtəɦʊ̃]
कहलहुँ [kəɦᵊləɦʊ̃]
Equalकहिअहु [kəɦɪəɦʊ]कहलिअहु [kəɦᵊlɪəɦʊ]कहबहु [kəɦᵊbəɦʊ]कहिअहु [kəɦɪəɦʊ]कहिअहु [kəɦɪəɦʊ]कहितिअहु [kəɦɪtɪəɦʊ]
NonHONकहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k]कहलिऔक [kəɦᵊlɪəʊ̯k]कहबौक [kəɦᵊbəʊ̯k]कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k]कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k]कहितिऔक [kəɦɪtɪəʊ̯k]
ThirdHONकहिअन्हि [kəɦɪəɪ̯nɦ]कहलिअन्हि [kəɦᵊlɪəɪ̯nɦ]कहबन्हि [kəɦᵊbəɪ̯nɦ]कहिऔन्ह् [kəɦɪəʊ̯nɦ]कहिएन्ह् [kəɦɪeːnɦ]कहितिऐन्ह् [kəɦɪtɪəɪ̯nɦ]
NonHONकहिऐक [kəɦɪəɪ̯k]कहलिऐक [kəɦᵊlɪəɪ̯k]कहबैक [kəɦᵊbəɪ̯k]कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k]कहिऐक [kəɦɪəɪ̯k]कहितिऐक [kəɦɪtɪəɪ̯k]
SecondHONFirstकही [kəɦiː]कहली [kəɦᵊliː]कहब [kəɦəb]कहू [kəɦuː]कही [kəɦiː]कहितहुँ [kəɦɪtəɦʊ̃]
कहलहुँ [kəɦᵊləɦʊ̃]
ThirdHONकहिअन्हि [kəɦɪəɪ̯nɦ]कहलिअन्हि [kəɦᵊlɪəɪ̯nɦ]कहबन्हि [kəɦᵊbəɪ̯nɦ]कहिऔन्ह् [kəɦɪəʊ̯nɦ]कहिऐन्ह् [kəɦɪəɪ̯nɦ]कहितिऐक [kəɦɪtɪəɪ̯k]
NonHONकहिऐक [kəɦɪəɪ̯k]कहलिऐक [kəɦᵊlɪəɪ̯k]कहबैक [kəɦᵊbəɪ̯k]कहिऔक [kəɦɪəʊ̯k]कहिऐक [kəɦɪəɪ̯k]कहितह [kəɦɪtəɦ]
EqualFirstकहह [kəɦəɦ]कहलह [kəɦᵊləɦ]कहबह [kəɦᵊbəɦ]कहह [kəɦəɦ]कहह [kəɦəɦ]कहितहुन्हु [kəɦɪtəɦʊnɦ]कहिहह [kəɦɪɦəɦ]
ThirdHONकहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ]कहलहुन्ह् [kəɦᵊləɦʊnɦ]कहबहुन्ह् [kəɦᵊbəɦʊnɦ]कहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ]कहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ]कहितहिक [kəɦɪtəɦɪk]कहिहौन्ह् [kəɦɪɦəʊ̯nɦ]
NONHONकहक [kəɦək]कहलहक [kəɦᵊləɦək]कहबहक [kəɦᵊbəɦək]कहक [kəɦək]कहक [kəɦək]कहिहक [kəɦɪɦək]
NonHONFirstकहें [kəɦeː]कहलें [kəɦᵊleː]कहबें [kəɦᵊbeː]कह [kəɦ]कह‍हिं [kəɦəɦɪ̃]कह‍हिं [kəɦəɦɪ̃]
ThirdHONकहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ]कहलहुन्ह् [kəɦᵊləɦʊnɦ]कहबहुन्ह् [kəɦᵊbəɦʊnɦ]कहुन्ह् [kəɦʊnɦ]कहुनह् [kəɦʊnəɦ]कहिहौन्ह् [kəɦɪɦəʊ̯nɦ]
NonHONकहिक [kəɦɪk]कहलहीक [kəɦᵊləɦiːk]कहबहीक [kəɦᵊbəɦiːk]कहीक [kəɦiːk]कहीक [kəɦiːk]कहितथि [kəɦɪtəɪ̯tʰ]कहिहक [kəɦɪɦək]
ThirdHONFirstकह‍थि [kəɦəɪ̯tʰ]कहलन्हि [kəɦᵊləɪ̯nɦ]कहताह [kəɦᵊtaːɦ]कह‍थु [kəɦəʊ̯tʰ]कहाथि [kəɦaːɪtʰ]कहितथि [kəɦɪtəɪ̯tʰ]
कहतीह [kəɦᵊtiːɦ]
SecondHONकह‍थि [kəɦəɪ̯tʰ]कहलनि [kəɦᵊləɪ̯n]कहताह [kəɦᵊtaːɦ]कह‍थु [kəɦəʊ̯tʰ]कहाथि [kəɦaːɪtʰ]कहिथुन्ह् [kəɦɪtʰʊnɦ]
Equalकहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहलनि [kəɦᵊləɪ̯n]कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहिथुन्ह् [kəɦɪtʰʊnɦ]
NonHONकहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहलथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊlətʰʊnɦ]कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहितथिन्हु [kəɦɪtətʰɪʊnɦ]
ThirdHONकहथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰɪnɦ]कहलथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊlətʰɪnɦ]कहथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰɪnɦ]कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहथुन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰʊnɦ]कहितए [kəɦɪtəeː]
कहैत [kəɦəɪ̯t]
NonHONकहथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰɪnɦ]कहलथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊlətʰɪnɦ]कहथिन्ह् [kəɦᵊtʰɪnɦ]कहथुह [kəɦᵊtʰʊɦ]कहथुह [kəɦᵊtʰʊɦ]कहितए [kəɦɪtəeː]
कहैत [kəɦəɪ̯t]
NonHONFirstकहए [kəɦəeː]कहलक [kəɦᵊlək]कहत [kəɦət]कहऒ [kəɦɔ]कहऒ [kəɦɔ]कहितहु [kəɦɪtəɦʊ]
SecondHONकहए [kəɦəeː]कहलक [kəɦᵊlək]कहत [kəɦət]कहऒ [kəɦɔ]कहऒ [kəɦɔ]कहितहु [kəɦɪtəɦʊ]
Equalकहहु [kəɦəɦʊ]कहलकहु [kəɦᵊləkəɦʊ]कहतहु [kəɦᵊtəɦʊ]कहहु [kəɦᵊɦʊ]कहहु [kəɦᵊɦʊ]कहितौक [kəɦɪtəʊ̯k]
NonHONकहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k]कहलकौक [kəɦᵊləkəʊ̯k]कहतौक [kəɦᵊtəʊ̯k]कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k]कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k]कहितन्हि [kəɦɪtəɪ̯nɦ]
ThirdHONकहन्हि [kəɦəɪ̯nɦ]कहलकन्हि [kəɦᵊləkəɪ̯nɦ]कहतनि [kəɦᵊtəɪ̯n]कहौन्ह् [kəɦəʊ̯nɦ]कहैन्ह् [kəɦəɪ̯nɦ]कहितैक [kəɦɪtəɪ̯k]
NonHONकहैक [kəɦəɪ̯k]कहलकैक [kəɦᵊləkəɪ̯k]कहतैक [kəɦətəɪ̯k]कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k]कहौक [kəɦəʊ̯k]


Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proto-Germanic language</span> Ancestor of the Germanic languages

Proto-Germanic is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages.

Neo-Mandaic, also known as Modern Mandaic, sometimes called the "ratna", is the modern reflex of the Mandaic language, the liturgical language of the Mandaean religious community of Iraq and Iran. Although severely endangered, it survives today as the first language of a small number of Mandaeans in Iran and in the Mandaean diaspora. All Neo-Mandaic speakers are multilingual in the languages of their neighbors, Arabic and Persian, and the influence of these languages upon the grammar of Neo-Mandaic is considerable, particularly in the lexicon and the morphology of the noun. Nevertheless, Neo-Mandaic is more conservative even in these regards than most other Neo-Aramaic languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supyire language</span> Language

Supyire, or Suppire, is a Senufo language spoken in the Sikasso Region of southeastern Mali and in adjoining regions of Ivory Coast. In their native language, the noun sùpyìré means both "the people" and "the language spoken by the people".

Much of Tamil grammar is extensively described in the oldest available grammar book for Tamil, the Tolkāppiyam. Modern Tamil writing is largely based on the 13th century grammar Naṉṉūl, which restated and clarified the rules of the Tolkāppiyam with some modifications.

Swampy Cree is a variety of the Algonquian language, Cree. It is spoken in a series of Swampy Cree communities in northern Manitoba, central northeast of Saskatchewan along the Saskatchewan River and along the Hudson Bay coast and adjacent inland areas to the south and west, and Ontario along the coast of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Within the group of dialects called "West Cree", it is referred to as an "n-dialect", as the variable phoneme common to all Cree dialects appears as "n" in this dialect.

The grammar of Old English differs a lot from Modern English, predominantly being much more inflected. As a Germanic language, Old English has a morphological system similar to that of the Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including constructions characteristic of the Germanic daughter languages such as the umlaut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hindustani grammar</span> Grammatical features of the Hindustani lingua franca

Hindustani, the lingua franca of Northern India and Pakistan, has two standardised registers: Hindi and Urdu. Grammatical differences between the two standards are minor but each uses its own script: Hindi uses Devanagari while Urdu uses an extended form of the Perso-Arabic script, typically in the Nastaʿlīq style.

Khwarshi is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken in the Tsumadinsky-, Kizilyurtovsky- and Khasavyurtovsky districts of Dagestan by the Khwarshi people. The exact number of speakers is not known, but the linguist Zaira Khalilova, who has carried out fieldwork in the period from 2005 to 2009, gives the figure 8,500. Other sources give much lower figures, such as Ethnologue with the figure 1,870 and the latest population census of Russia with the figure 1,872. The low figures are because many Khwarshi have registered themselves as being Avar speakers, because Avar is their literary language.

The grammar of the Marathi language shares similarities with other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Odia, Gujarati or Punjabi. The first modern book exclusively about the grammar of Marathi was printed in 1805 by Willam Carey.

Dirasha is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. It is spoken in the Omo region of Ethiopia, in the hills west of Lake Chamo, around the town of Gidole.

Baiso or Bayso is an Afro-Asiatic, more specifically a Lowland East Cushitic language belonging to the Omo-Tana subgroup, and is spoken in Ethiopia, in the region around Lake Abaya.

East Cree, also known as James Bay (Eastern) Cree, and East Main Cree, is a group of Cree dialects spoken in Quebec, Canada on the east coast of lower Hudson Bay and James Bay, and inland southeastward from James Bay. Cree is one of the most spoken non-official aboriginal languages of Canada. Four dialects have been tentatively identified including the Southern Inland dialect (Iyiniw-Ayamiwin) spoken in Mistissini, Oujé-Bougoumou, Waswanipi, and Nemaska; the Southern Coastal dialect (Iyiyiw-Ayamiwin) spoken in Nemaska, Waskaganish, and Eastmain; the Northern Coastal Dialects (Iyiyiw-Ayimiwin), one spoken in Wemindji and Chisasibi and the other spoken in Whapmagoostui. The dialects are mutually intelligible, though difficulty arises as the distance between communities increases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maliseet-Passamaquoddy language</span> Algonquian language

Maliseet-Passamaquoddy is an endangered Algonquian language spoken by the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy peoples along both sides of the border between Maine in the United States and New Brunswick, Canada. The language consists of two major dialects: Maliseet, which is mainly spoken in the Saint John River Valley in New Brunswick; and Passamaquoddy, spoken mostly in the St. Croix River Valley of eastern Maine. However, the two dialects differ only slightly, mainly in their phonology. The indigenous people widely spoke Maliseet-Passamaquoddy in these areas until around the post-World War II era when changes in the education system and increased marriage outside of the speech community caused a large decrease in the number of children who learned or regularly used the language. As a result, in both Canada and the U.S. today, there are only 600 speakers of both dialects, and most speakers are older adults. Although the majority of younger people cannot speak the language, there is growing interest in teaching the language in community classes and in some schools.

Nepali grammar is the study of the morphology and syntax of Nepali, an Indo-European language spoken in South Asia.

Bihari Hindi is a variety of Hindustani, spoken in Bihar, particularly in the urban areas of Bihar. It is heavily influenced by the Bihari languages Magahi, Maithili and Bhojpuri. It shares more vocabulary with Maithili, Magahi and Bhojpuri than Standard Hindi.

Old Norse has three categories of verbs and two categories of nouns. Conjugation and declension are carried out by a mix of inflection and two nonconcatenative morphological processes: umlaut, a backness-based alteration to the root vowel; and ablaut, a replacement of the root vowel, in verbs.

Telugu is an agglutinative language with person, tense, case and number being inflected on the end of nouns and verbs. Its word order is usually subject-object-verb, with the direct object following the indirect object. The grammatical function of the words are marked by suffixes that indicate case and postpositions that follow the oblique stem. It is also head-final and a pro-drop language.

Zotung (Zobya) is a language spoken by the Zotung people, in Rezua Township, Chin State, Burma. It is a continuum of closely related dialects and accents. The language does not have a standard written form since it has dialects with multiple variations on its pronunciations. Instead, Zotung speakers use a widely accepted alphabet for writing with which they spell using their respective dialect. However, formal documents are written using the Lungngo dialect because it was the tongue of the first person to prescribe a standard writing, Sir Siabawi Khuamin.

Proto-Slavic is the unattested, reconstructed proto-language of all Slavic languages. It represents Slavic speech approximately from the 2nd millennium BC through the 6th century AD. As with most other proto-languages, no attested writings have been found; scholars have reconstructed the language by applying the comparative method to all the attested Slavic languages and by taking into account other Indo-European languages.

This article describes the grammar of the Old Irish language. The grammar of the language has been described with exhaustive detail by various authors, including Thurneysen, Binchy and Bergin, McCone, O'Connell, Stifter, among many others.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN   978-3-11-014558-8.
  2. 1 2 अ꣱ is often written as अ
  3. 1 2 Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 15–27.
  4. 1 2 "Maithili". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  5. Often pronounced as /n/ or /ɽ̃/. Original pronunciation is also prevalent though.
  6. Independent ञ is used for representing nasalised vowels, such as ञ for /ə̃/ and ञि for /ɪ̃/.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Aspirated nasals, and the aspirated rhotic are written as conjunct with ह /ɦ/, but they are not, they are treated as a single phoneme in Maithili.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Grierson, George Abraham (1909). An introduction to the Maithili dialect of the Bihari language as spoken in North Bihar (2 ed.). Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal.
  9. Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). "Trends in Linguistics: Documentation, 11.". A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 15–27.
  10. Alternatively, if non-central vowel not followed by central vowel.
  11. Grierson distinguished only two- Masculine and Feminine, traditional grammars however have the given fourfold distinction. Because of the lack of grammatical gender, many modern grammarians have rejected the distinction altogether.
  12. Original indicates OIA forms.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ॴ [ā] is often replaced by अ [a], when there is no confusion in meaning. As in बऻतिया/बतिया bătiyā/batiyā, and ॴगिया/अगिया ăgiya/agiyā.
  14. The ergative case is used mostly in the Southern dialects.
  15. The ending is optionally shortened in length in Southern dialects, when the genitive suffix is added. Instead of क k, र r is also met in southern dialects.
  16. In ā stems, the ergative suffix is sometimes added after ā. The stems of radical consonants, after converted into ā stem, are also treated same.
  17. This is optional in most cases, compulsory in verbal nouns, and participles, most of which fall in this category.
  18. 1 2 Both nasalised and non-nasalised forms are in use, such as केँ kē̃ and के kē, मेँ mē̃ and मे mē.
  19. Bhatt, Rajesh (2003). Experiencer subjects. Handout from MIT course “Structure of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languages”.
  20. सँ sã is also in use alternatively.
  21. Used in Old Maithili, and southern dialects.
  22. For pronouns, it is always added as a postposition, and not as a preposition, such as हम सभ ham sabh, and not सभ हम sabh ham.