Swedish grammar

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Swedish is descended from Old Norse. Compared to its progenitor, Swedish grammar is much less characterized by inflection. Modern Swedish has two genders and no longer conjugates verbs based on person or number. Its nouns have lost the morphological distinction between nominative and accusative cases that denoted grammatical subject and object in Old Norse in favor of marking by word order. Swedish uses some inflection with nouns, adjectives, and verbs. It is generally a subject–verb–object (SVO) language with V2 word order.

Contents

Nouns

Nouns have one of two grammatical genders: common (utrum) and neuter (neutrum), which determine their definite forms as well as the form of any adjectives and articles used to describe them. Noun gender is largely arbitrary and must be memorized; however, around three quarters of all Swedish nouns are common gender. Living beings are often common nouns, like in en katt "a cat", en häst "a horse", en fluga "a fly", etc.

Swedish once had three genders—masculine, feminine and neuter. Though the three-gender system is preserved in many dialects and traces of it still exist in certain expressions, masculine and feminine nouns have today merged into the common gender in the standard language. A remnant of the masculine gender can still be expressed in the singular definite form of adjectives according to natural gender (male humans), in the same way as personal pronouns, han and hon , are chosen for representing nouns in contemporary Swedish (male/female human beings and optionally animals).

There is a small number of Swedish nouns that can be either common or neuter gender. The database for Svenska Akademiens ordlista 12 contained 324 such nouns. [1]

There are traces of the former four-case system for nouns evidenced in that pronouns still have subject, object (based on the old accusative and dative form) and genitive forms. [2] Nouns make no distinction between subject and object forms, and the genitive is formed by adding -s to the end of a word. This -s genitive functions more like a clitic than a proper case and is nearly identical to the possessive suffix used in English. Note, however, that in Swedish orthography this genitive -s is appended directly to the word and is not preceded by an apostrophe. This does not cause confusion as it would in English because Swedish does not use an "-s" suffix for plurals.

Swedish nouns are inflected for number and definiteness and can take a genitive suffix. They exhibit the following morpheme order:

Noun stem(Plural ending)(Definite article)(Genitive -s)

Plural forms

Nouns form the plural in a variety of ways. It is customary to classify Swedish nouns into five declensions based on their plural indefinite endings: -or, -ar, -(e)r, -n, and no ending.

Articles and definite forms

The definite article in Swedish is mostly expressed by a suffix on the head noun, while the indefinite article is a separate word preceding the noun. This structure of the articles is shared by the Scandinavian languages. Articles differ in form depending on the gender and number of the noun.

The indefinite article, which is only used in the singular, is en for common nouns, and ett for neuter nouns, e.g. en flaska ("a bottle"), ett brev ("a letter"). The definite article in the singular is generally the suffixes -en or -n for common nouns (e.g. flaskan "the bottle"), and -et or -t for neuter nouns (e.g. brevet "the letter"). In most dialects, the final -t of the definite neuter suffix is silent. The definite article in the plural is -na for the first three declensions, -a for the fourth, and -en for the fifth: for example flaskorna ("the bottles"), bina ("the bees"), breven ("the letters").

When an adjective or numeral is used in front of a noun with the definite article, an additional definite article is placed before the adjective(s). This additional definite article is det for neuter nouns, den for common nouns, and de for plural nouns, e.g. den nya flaskan ("the new bottle"), det nya brevet ("the new letter"), de fem flaskorna ("the five bottles"). A similar structure involving the same kind of circumfixing of the definite article around the words här ("here") or där ('there') is used to mean "this" and "that", e.g. den här flaskan ("this bottle"), det där brevet ("that letter") as a demonstrative article.

The five declension classes may be named -or, -ar, -er, -n, and null after their respective plural indefinite endings. Each noun has eight forms: singular/plural, definite/indefinite and caseless/genitive. The caseless form is sometimes referred to as nominative , even though it is used for grammatical objects as well as subjects.

Genitive

The genitive is always formed by appending -s to the caseless form. In the second, third and fifth declensions words may end with /s/ (spelled -⟨s⟩, -⟨x⟩, or -⟨z⟩) in the caseless form. These words take no extra -s in genitive use: the genitive (indefinite) of hus ("house") is hus. The invisible genitive suffix may however optionally be represented with an apostrophe in writing: hus. [3] Morpheme boundaries in some forms may be analyzed differently by some scholars.

The Swedish genitive is not considered a case by all scholars today,[ who? ] as the -s is usually put on the last word of the noun phrase even when that word is not the head noun, much like in English usage (e.g. mannen som står där bortas hatt, "the man standing over there's hat"). This use of -s as a clitic rather than a suffix has traditionally been regarded as ungrammatical, but is today dominant to the point where putting an -s on the head noun is considered old fashioned. The Swedish Language Council sanctions putting the ending after fixed, non-arbitrary phrases (e.g. Konungen av Danmarks bröstkarameller, "the King of Denmark's cough drops"); but otherwise they recommend to reformulate in order to avoid the construction altogether. [4]

Examples

These examples cover all regular Swedish caseless noun forms.

First declension: -or (common gender)

SingularPlural
Indefinite(en) flaska

(a) bottle

flaskor

bottles

Definiteflaskan

the bottle

flaskorna

the bottles

Second declension: -ar (common gender)

SingularPlural
Indefinite(en) stol

a chair

stolar

chairs

Definitestolen

the chair

stolarna

the chairs

SingularPlural
Indefinite(en) gubbe

(an) old man

gubbar

old men

Definitegubben

the old man

gubbarna

the old men

Third declension: -er, -r (mostly common gender nouns, some neuter nouns)

SingularPlural
Indefinite(en) sak

(a) thing

saker

things

Definitesaken

the thing

sakerna

the things

SingularPlural
Indefinite(en) bakelse

(a) pastry

bakelser

pastries

Definitebakelsen

the pastry

bakelserna

the pastries

SingularPlural
Indefinite(ett) parti

(a) political party

partier

political parties

Definitepartiet

the political party

partierna

the political parties

The set of words taking only -r as a marker for plural is regarded as a declension of its own by some scholars. However, traditionally these have been regarded as a special version of the third declension.

Fourth declension: -n (neuter) This is when a neuter noun ends in a vowel.

SingularPlural
Indefinite(ett) hjärta

(a) heart

hjärtan

hearts

Definitehjärtat

the heart

hjärtana

the hearts

Fifth declension: unmarked plural (mostly neuter nouns ending in consonants and common gender nouns ending in certain derivational suffixes)

SingularPlural
Indefinite(ett) horn

(a) horn

horn

horns

Definitehornet

the horn

hornen

the horns

SingularPlural
Indefinite(en) bagare

(a) baker

bagare

bakers

Definitebagaren

the baker

bagarna

the bakers

SingularPlural
Indefinite(en) indier

(an) Indian

indier

Indians

Definiteindiern

the Indian

indierna

the Indians

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

The Swedish personal-pronoun system is almost identical to that of English. Pronouns inflect for person, for number, and, in the third person singular, for gender. Swedish differs, inter alia, in having a separate third-person reflexive pronoun sig ("oneself"/"himself"/"herself"/"itself"/"themselves" – analogous to Latin se and Slavic sę), and distinct 2nd-person singular forms du ("thou") and ni ("you", formal/respectful), and their objective forms, which have all merged to you in English, while the third-person plurals are becoming merged in Swedish instead (see below the table). Some aspects of personal pronouns are simpler in Swedish: reflexive forms are not used for the first and second persons, although själv ("self") and egen /eget/egna ("own") may be used for emphasis, and there are no absolute forms for the possessive.

The Swedish personal pronouns are:

SingularPlural
PersonNominativeObjectivePossessive: com./neut./pl.PersonNominativeObjectivePossessive: com./neut./pl.
1st jag mig [lower-roman 1] min , mitt , mina [lower-roman 2] 1st vi oss vår , vårt , våra [lower-roman 2]
2nd (familiar) du dig [lower-roman 1] din , ditt , dina [lower-roman 2] 2nd
(plural or formal sing.)
ni er er , ert , era [lower-roman 2]
Ers (honorific)
3rd masculine han honom hans 3rd de [lower-roman 1] dem [lower-roman 1] deras
3rd feminine hon henne hennes
3rd gender-neutral [lower-roman 3] hen hen , henom hens
3rd common den dess
3rd neuter det
3rd indefinite ("one") man en ens
3rd reflexive sig [lower-roman 1] sin , sitt , sina [lower-roman 2] 3rd reflexive sig [lower-roman 1] sin , sitt , sina [lower-roman 2]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Pronouns de ("they") and dem ("them") are both usually pronounced dom [ˈdɔmː] ) in colloquial speech, while in formal speech, dom may optionally replace just dem. In some dialects (especially in southwestern Sweden and Finland) there is still a separation between the two; de is then commonly pronounced di [ˈdiː] . Also, mig, dig, sig are pronounced as if written mej, dej, sej [ˈmɛj,ˈdɛj,ˈsɛj] , and are also sometimes spelled that way in less formal writing or to signal spoken language, but this is not appreciated by everyone.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 These possessive pronouns are inflected similarly to adjectives, agreeing in gender and number with the item possessed. The other possessive pronouns (i.e. those listed singly) are genitive forms that are unaffected by the item possessed.
  3. While common and neuter refer to grammatical gender, hen and its inflections are gender-neutral pronoun neologisms used by some to avoid a preference for female or male, when a person's gender is not known, or to refer to people who do not identify their gender as female or male, similarly to the singular they in English. They came into widespread use relatively recently, but since 2010 have appeared frequently in traditional and online media, [5] legal documents, [6] and literature. [7] The use of these words has prompted political and linguistic debate in Sweden, and their use is not accepted by all Swedish speakers. [8] In April 2015, it was added to Svenska Akademiens ordlista , the official spelling dictionary of the Swedish Academy. Style manuals and Swedish Language Council recommend hen over henom as the objective form.

Demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pronouns

  1. 1 2 3 4 , där, dit, and dädan (then, there, thither, and thence), and any compounds derived from them, are used not only in a demonstrative sense, but also in a relative sense, where English would require the wh- forms when, where, whither and whence.
  2. 1 2 Animacy is implied by gender in these pronouns: non-neuter implies a person ("-one" or "-body") and neuter implies a thing.

Adjectives

Swedish adjectives are declined according to gender, number, and definiteness of the noun.

Strong inflection

In singular indefinite, the form used with nouns of the common gender is the undeclined form, but with nouns of the neuter gender a suffix -t is added. In plural indefinite an -a suffix is added irrespective of gender. This constitutes the strong adjective inflection, characteristic of Germanic languages:

SingularPlural
Commonen stor björn , "a large bear"stora björnar, "large bears"
Neuterett stort lodjur , "a large lynx"stora lodjur, "large lynxes"

In standard Swedish, adjectives are inflected according to the strong pattern, by gender and number of the noun, in complement function with är, "is/am/are", such as

lodjuret är skyggt, "the lynx is shy", and
björnarna är bruna, "the bears are brown".

In some dialects of Swedish, the adjective is uninflected in complement function with är, so becoming

lodjuret är skygg, "the lynx is shy", and
björnarna är brun, "the bears are brown".

Weak inflection

In the definite form, (meaning the + adjective), there is an -a suffix no matter the case or number of the noun:

SingularPlural
Commonden stora björnen, "the large bear"de stora björnarna, "the large bears"
Neuterdet stora lodjuret, "the large lynx"de stora lodjuren, "the large lynxes"

This form is also used with possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, our, their, or in Swedish min/mitt/mina, etc. ), resulting in min gula bil (my yellow car) and ditt stora hus (your large house).

The sole exception to this -a suffix occurs when nouns can be replaced with "he" or "him" (in Swedish han or honom). In this case, the adjectives take the -e ending. Colloquially, however, the usual -a ending is possible in these cases in some Swedish dialects:

SingularPlural
Nat. masc.,
alt. I
den store mannen, "the large man"de stora männen, "the large men"
Nat. masc.,
alt. II
den stora mannen, "the large man"

This is called a weak adjective inflection and originates from a Proto-Germanic nominal derivation of the adjectives. This was not always the case, cf. Proto-Germanic adjectives

Comparatives and superlatives

Adjectives with comparative and superlative forms ending in -are and -ast, which is a majority, also, and so by rule, use the -e suffix for all persons on definite superlatives: den billigaste bilen ("the cheapest car"). Another instance of -e for all persons is the plural forms and definite forms of adjectival verb participles ending in -ad: en målad bil ("a painted car") vs. målade bilar ("painted cars") and den målade bilen ("the painted car").

Adverbs

Adjectival adverbs are formed by putting the adjective in the neuter singular form. Adjectives ending in -lig may take either the neuter singular ending or the suffix -en, and occasionally -ligen is added to an adjective not already ending in -lig.

CommonNeuterAdverb
tjock , "thick"tjockt, "thick"tjockt, "thickly"
snabb , "fast"snabbt, "fast"snabbt, "fast"
avsiktlig , "intentional"avsiktligt, "intentional" avsiktligen , "intentionally"
stor , "great, large"stort, "great, large" storligen , "greatly"
i stort sett, "largely"

Directional adverbs

Adverbs of direction in Swedish show a distinction that is often lacking in English: some have different forms depending on whether one is heading that way, or already there. For example:

Jag steg upp på taket. Jag arbetade där uppe på taket.
I climbed up on the roof. I was working up on the roof.
Heading that wayAlready thereEnglish
upp uppe up
ner nere down
in inne in, into
ut ute out, out of
hem hemma home
bort borta away
fram framme forward

Numerals

Cardinal numbers

The cardinal numbers from zero to twelve in Swedish are:

0123456789101112
noll en , ett två tre fyra fem sex sju åtta nio tio elva tolv

The number 1 is the same as the indefinite article, and its form (en or ett) depends on the gender of the noun that it modifies.

The Swedish numbers from 13 to 19 are:

13141516171819
tretton fjorton femton sexton sjutton arton
( aderton )
nitton

The form aderton is archaic, and is nowadays only used in poetry and some official documents. It is still common in Finland Swedish.

The numbers for multiples of ten from 20 to 1000 are:

20304050607080901001000
tjugo trettio fyrtio femtio sextio sjuttio åttio nittio (ett) hundra (ett) tusen

In some dialects, numbers are not always pronounced the way they are spelled. With the numbers nio (9), tio (10) and tjugo (20), the -o is often pronounced as -e, e.g. [ˈɕʉ̂ːɡɛ] . In some northern dialects it is pronounced as a -u ( [ˈɕʉ̂ːɡʉ] ), and in some middle dialects as an -i ( [ˈɕʉ̂ːɡɪ] ). In spoken language, tjugo usually drops the final syllable when compounded with another digit and is pronounced as tju- + the digit, e.g. tjugosju (27) may be pronounced [ɕʉːˈɧʉː] . Words ending in -io (trettio, fyrtio, etc.) are most often pronounced without the final -o; the y in fyrtio (40) is always pronounced as ö: [ˈfœ̌ʈːɪ] .

Numbers between 21–99 are written in the following format:

(big number)(small number)

For example:

22 – tjugotvå
79 – sjuttionio
63 – sextiotre
48 – fyrtioåtta
31 – trettioett
(345 – trehundrafyrtiofem)

The ett preceding hundra (100) and tusen (1000) is optional, but in compounds it is usually required.

Higher numbers include:

10 000 tiotusen
100 000 hundratusen
1 000 000 en miljon
10 000 000 tio miljoner
100 000 000 (ett) hundra miljoner
1 000 000 000 en miljard [lower-roman 1]

The cardinal numbers from miljon and larger are true nouns and take the -er suffix in the plural. They are separated in written Swedish from the preceding number.

Any number can be compounded by simply joining the relevant simple cardinal number in the same order as the digits are written. Written with digits, a number is separated with a space between each third digit from the right. The same principle is used when a number is written with letters, although using letters becomes less common the longer the number is. However, round numbers, like tusen, miljon and miljard are often written with letters as are small numbers (below 20).

Written formIn components (do not use in written Swedish)
21tjugoett / tjugoen(tjugo-ett) / (tjugo-en)
147etthundrafyrtisju
etthundrafyrtiosju
(ett-hundra-fyrtio-sju)
1 975ettusen niohundrasjuttifem
ettusen niohundrasjuttiofem
(ett-tusen nio-hundra-sjuttio-fem)
10 874tiotusen åttahundrasjuttifyra
tiotusen åttahundrasjuttiofyra
(tio-tusen åtta-hundra-sjuttio-fyra)
100 557etthundratusen femhundrafemtisju
etthundratusen femhundrafemtiosju
(ett-hundra-tusen fem-hundra-femtio-sju)
1 378 971en miljon trehundrasjuttiåtta tusen niohundrasjuttiett
en miljon trehundrasjuttioåtta tusen niohundrasjuttioett
(en miljon tre-hundra-sjuttio-åtta tusen nio-hundra-sjuttio-ett)

The decimal point is written as , (comma) and spelled and pronounced komma . The digits following the decimal point may be read individually or as a pair if there are only two. When dealing with monetary amounts (usually with two decimals), the decimal point is read as och, i.e. "and": 3,50 (tre och femtio), 7,88 (sju och åttioåtta).

Ordinal and rational numbers

Ordinals from "first" to "twelfth":

1st2nd3rd4th5th6th7th8th9th10th11th12th
1:a2:a3:e4:e5:e6:e7:e8:e9:e10:e11:e12:e
första andra tredje fjärde femte sjätte sjunde åttonde nionde tionde elfte tolfte

Those from "thirteenth" to "nineteenth", as well as "hundredth" and "thousandth", are formed from cardinal numerals with the suffix -de, e.g. trettonde (13:e), fjortonde (14:e), hundrade (100:e), tusende (1000:e).

Ordinals for the multiples of ten ("twentieth" to "ninetieth") are formed from cardinal numerals with the suffix -nde, e.g. tjugonde (20:e), trettionde (30:e).

Ordinals for higher numbers are formed from cardinal numerals with the suffix -te, e.g. miljonte ("millionth"). There is no ordinal for miljard ("billion").

Rational numbers are read as the cardinal number of the numerator followed by the ordinal number of the denominator compounded with del or, if the numerator is higher than one, delar ("part(s)"). For those ordinal numbers that are three syllables or longer and end in -de, that suffix is usually dropped in favour of -del(ar). There are a few exceptions.

12en halv ("one half")
13en tredjedel
34tre fjärdedelar
25två femtedelar
56fem sjättedelar
47fyra sjundedelar
18en åttondel or en åttondedel
89åtta niondelar or åtta niondedelar
110en tiondel or en tiondedel
111en elftedel
112en tolftedel
113en trettondel or en trettondedel
114en fjortondel or en fjortondedel
115en femtondel or en femtondedel
116en sextondel or en sextondedel
117en sjuttondel or en sjuttondedel
118en artondel or en artondedel
119en nittondel or en nittondedel
120en tjugondel or en tjugondedel

Verbs

Verbs do not inflect for person or number in modern standard Swedish. They inflect for the present and past tense and the imperative, subjunctive, and indicative mood. Other tenses are formed by combinations of auxiliary verbs with infinitives or a special form of the participle called the supine . In total there are six spoken active-voice forms for each verb: infinitive, imperative, present, preterite/past, supine, and past participle. The only subjunctive form widely used in everyday speech is vore , the past subjunctive of vara ("to be"). It is used as one way of expressing the conditional ("would be", "were"), but is optional. Except for this form, subjunctive forms are considered archaic or dialectal.

Verbs may also take the passive voice. It is formed for any verb tense by appending -s to the tense. For verbs ending in -r, the -r is actually replaced by the -s altogether. Verbs ending in -er often lose the -e- as well, other than in very formal style: stärker ("strengthens") becomes stärks or stärkes ("is strengthened"); exceptions are monosyllabic verbs and verbs where the root ends in -s. Swedish uses the passive voice more frequently than English.

Conjugating verbs

Swedish verbs are divided into four groups:

GroupDescription
1regular -ar verbs
2regular -er verbs
3short verbs, ending in -r
4 strong and irregular verbs, ending in -er or -r

About 80% of all verbs in Swedish are group 1 verbs, which is the only productive verb group. Swenglish variants of English verbs can be made by adding -a to the end of an English verb, sometimes with minor spelling changes; the verb is then treated as a group 1 verb. Examples of modern loan words within the field are chatta and surfa . Swenglish variants that may be used but are not considered standard Swedish include maila/mejla ( [ˈmɛ̂jla] , "to email" or "mail") and savea/sejva ( [ˈsɛ̂jva] , "to save").

The stem of a verb is based on the present tense of the verb. If the present tense ends in -ar, the -r is removed to form the stem, e.g., kallar kalla-. If the present tense ends in -er, the -er is removed, e.g., stänger stäng-. For short verbs, the -r is removed from the present tense of the verb, e.g., syr sy-. The imperative is the same as the stem.

GroupStemImperativeInfinitivePresentPreterite/PastSupinePast participleEnglish
1kalla-kalla! kalla kallar-rkallade-dekallat-tkallad
kallat
kallade
-d
-t
-de
to call
2astäng-stäng! stänga -astänger-erstängde-destängt-tstängd
stängt
stängda
-d
-t
-da
to close
2bläs-läs! läsa -aläser-erläste-teläst-tläst
läst
lästa
-t
-t
-ta
to read
3sy-sy! sy syr-rsydde-ddesytt-ttsydd
sytt
sydda
-dd
-tt
-dda
to sew
4stryk-stryk! stryka -astryker-erströk [lower-roman 1] strukit-itstruken
struket
strukna
-en
-et
-na
to strike out
to iron
to stroke
irregularvar-var! vara ärvarvaritto be
  1. often a new vowel

Examples of tenses with English translations

TenseEnglishSwedish
Infinitiveto work(att) arbeta
Present tenseI workjag arbetar
Past tense, imperfectI workedjag arbetade
Past tense, perfectI have workedjag har arbetat
Future tenseI will/shall workjag ska arbeta

The irregular verb

TenseEnglishSwedish
Infinitiveto walk(att)
Present tenseI walkjag går
Past tense, imperfectI walkedjag gick
Past tense, perfectI have walkedjag har gått
Future tenseI will walkjag ska gå

As in all Germanic languages, strong verbs change their vowel sounds in the various tenses. For most Swedish strong verbs that have a verb cognate in English or German, that cognate is also strong. For example, "to bite" is a strong verb in all three languages as well as Dutch:

LanguageInfinitivePresentPreterite/pastSupine/perfectPast participle
Swedish bita jag biterjag betjag har bititbiten, bitet, bitna
Dutch bijten ik bijtik beetik heb gebetengebeten
German beißen ich beißeich bissich habe gebissengebissen
Englishto bite I biteI bitI have bittenbitten

Supine form

The supine (supinum) form is used in Swedish to form the composite past form of a verb. For verb groups 1–3 the supine is identical to the neuter form of the past participle. For verb group 4, the supine ends in -it while the past participle's neuter form ends in -et. Clear pan-Swedish rules for the distinction in use of the -et and -it verbal suffixes were codified with the first official Swedish Bible translation, completed 1541.

This is best shown by example:

Simple past: "I ate (the) dinner" – jag åt maten (using preterite)
Composite past: "I have eaten (the) dinner" – jag har ätit maten (using supine)
Past participle common: "(the) dinner is eaten" – maten är äten (using past participle)
Past participle neuter: "(the) apple is eaten" – äpplet är ätet
Past participle plural: "(the) apples are eaten" – äpplena är ätna

The supine form is used after ha ("to have"). In English this form is normally merged with the past participle, or the preterite, and this was formerly the case in Swedish, too (the choice of -it or -et being dialectal rather than grammatical); however, in modern Swedish, they are separate, since the distinction of -it being supine and -et being participial was standardised.

Passive voice

The passive voice in Swedish is formed in one of four ways:

  1. adding an -s to the infinitive form of the verb (s-passive); this form tends to focus on the action itself rather than the result of it;
  2. using a form of bli ("to become") + the perfect participle (bli-passive); this form stresses the change caused by the action;
  3. using a form of vara ("to be") + the perfect participle (vara-passive); this form puts the result of the action in the center of interest;
  4. use a form of ("to get") + the perfect participle (analogous to English get-passive); this form is used when you want to use a subject other than the "normal" one in a passive clause.
Examples:
  1. Dörren målas. – "The door is being painted", i.e. someone is performing the action of painting the door at this moment.
  2. Dörren blir målad. – "The door is being (becoming) painted", i.e. in a new colour, or it wasn't painted before (the action is not necessarily occurring at this moment).
  3. Dörren är målad. – "The door is painted", i.e. it is not unpainted (state).
  4. Han fick dörren målad. – "He got the door painted." In English you could say: "the door was painted for him", but if you want he to be the subject you need to use this structure, which is shared by Swedish. English can use to have for to get here (he had the door...), which is not possible in Swedish.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is very rarely used in modern Swedish and is limited to a few fixed expressions like leve kungen, "long live the king". Present subjunctive is formed by adding the -e ending to the stem of a verb:

InfinitivePresent tense indicativePresent tense subjunctive
att tala , "to speak"talar, "speak(s)"tale, "may speak"
att bli , "to become"blir, "become(s)"blive, "may become" (the -v- comes from the older form bliva )
att skriva , "to write"skriver, "write(s)"skrive, "may write"
att springa , "to run"springer, "run(s)"springe, "may run"
InfinitivePast tense indicativeSupine indicativePast tense subjunctive
att finnas , "to exist (be)"fanns, "existed (there was)"funnits, "has existed (there has been)"om det funnes tid, "if only there were time" (changes past tense -a- to supine -u-)
att bli , "to become"blev, "became"blivit, "have/has become"om det bleve, "if only it became so" (regular: just appends -e to the past tense)
att skriva , "to write"skrev, "wrote"skrivit, "written"om jag skreve ett brev, "if I should write a letter" (regular: appends -e)

Historical plural forms

In Swedish, the verbs used to conjugate similarly to modern Icelandic. In less formal Swedish the verbs started to lose their inflection regarding person already during the 16th century. The singular–plural distinction survived a bit longer, but came gradually out of use. In very formal language, the special plural forms appeared occasionally as late as the 1940s.

The plural forms are still found in historic texts and might thus have some importance. However, modern Swedish does not inflect verbs (except for tense), and the plural forms are archaic.

In the present tense, the plural was almost always the same as the infinitive. The only major exception was äro (vi äro, "we are"). In the past tense, all weak verbs had the same form in singular and plural. The strong verbs appended an -o to the end form the plural. For some groups of strong verbs the plural also used another vowel than the singular. The group i-a-u is a good example.

InfinitivePresent tense singularPresent tense pluralPast tense singularPast tense plural
att arbeta , "to work"arbetar, "work(s)" (sing.)arbeta, "work" (plur.)arbetade, "worked" (sing.)arbetade, "worked" (plur.) [lower-roman 1]
att leka , "to play (games)"leker, "play(s)" (sing.)leka, "play" (plur.)lekte, "played" (sing.)lekte, "played" (plur.) [lower-roman 1]
att bo , "to live (dwell)"bor, "live(s)" (sing.)bo, "live" (plur.)bodde, "lived" (sing.)bodde, "lived" (plur.) [lower-roman 1]
att falla , "to fall"faller, "fall(s)" (sing.)falla, "fall" (plur.)föll, "fell" (sing.)föllo, "fell" (plur.) [lower-roman 2]
att finnas , "to exist (be)"finns, "exists (there is)" (sing.)finnas, "exist (there are)" (plur.)fanns, "existed (there were/was)" (sing.)funnos, "existed (there were)" (plur.) [lower-roman 3]
  1. 1 2 3 weak verb: same form in past tense singular and plural
  2. strong verb, no vowel change: appends -o
  3. strong verb, vowel change: supine vowel, appends -o

Prepositions

Unlike in more conservative Germanic languages (e.g. German), putting a noun into a prepositional phrase doesn't alter its inflection, case, number or definiteness in any way, except in a very small number of set phrases.

Prepositions of location

PrepositionMeaningExampleTranslation
on, uponRåttan dansar bordet.The rat dances on the table.
under underMusen dansar under bordet.The mouse dances under the table.
i inKålle arbetar i Göteborg.Kålle works in Gothenburg.
vid byJag är vid sjön.I am by the lake.
till toAda har åkt till Göteborg.Ada has gone to Gothenburg.

Prepositions of time

PrepositionMeaningExampleTranslation
atVi ses rasten.See you at the break.
före beforeDe var alltid trötta före rasten.They were always tired before the break.
om inKan vi ha rast om en timme?May we have a break in an hour?
i forKan vi ha rast i en timme?May we have a break for an hour?
for (in a negative statement)Vi har inte haft rast två timmar.We have not had a break for two hours.
under duringVi arbetade under helgdagarna.We worked during the holidays.

Ambipositions

The general rule is that prepositions are placed before the word they are referring to. However, there are a few so-called ambipositions that may appear on either side of the head:

AdpositionMeaningSucceeding adposition (postposition)Preceding adposition (preposition)Translation
runt aroundriket runtrunt riketaround the kingdom
emellan betweenbröder emellanemellan bröderbetween brothers
igenom throughnatten igenomigenom nattenthrough the night

Syntax

Being a Germanic language, Swedish syntax shows similarities to both English and German. All three languages have a subject–verb–object basic word order, but Swedish sides with English in keeping this order also in dependent clauses (where German puts the verb last). Like German, Swedish utilizes verb-second word order in main clauses, for instance after adverbs, adverbial phrases, and dependent clauses. Adjectives generally precede the noun they determine, though the reverse is not infrequent in poetry. Nouns qualifying other nouns are almost always compounded on the fly; the last noun is the head.

A general word-order template may be drawn for a Swedish sentence, where each part, if it does appear, appears in this order. [9]

Main clause

FundamentFinite verbSubject (if not fundament)Clausal adverb/negationNon-finite verb (in infinitive or supine)Object(s)Spatial adverbTemporal adverb

Subordinate clause

ConjunctionSubjectClausal adverb/NegationFinite VerbNon-finite verb (in infinitive or supine)Object(s)Spatial adverbTemporal adverb

The "fundament" can be whatever constituent that the speaker wishes to topicalize, emphasize as the topic of the sentence. In the unmarked case, with no special topic, the subject is placed in the fundament position. Common fundaments are an adverb or object, but it is also possible to topicalize basically any constituent, including constituents lifted from a subordinate clause into the fundament position of the main clause: honom vill jag inte att du träffar (lit. "him want I not that you meet", i.e. "I don't want you to meet him") or even the whole subordinate clause: att du följer honom hem accepterar jag inte ("that you follow him home I do not accept"). An odd case is the topicalization of the finite verb, which requires the addition of a "dummy" finite verb in the V2 position, so that the same clause has two finite verbs: arbetade gjorde jag inte igår ("worked did I not yesterday").

Notes

  1. Källström, Roger. "Omarkerat neutrum?" (PDF) (in Swedish). Göteborgs universitet . Retrieved 26 March 2008.[ dead link ]
  2. Pettersson 1996, pp. 150–151.
  3. Teleman, Ulf; Hellberg, Staffan; Andersson, Erik (1999). Svenska Akademiens grammatik (PDF). Vol. 2: Ord. p. 112. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
  4. Språkrådet. "Heter det Konungens av Danmark bröstkarameller eller Konungen av Danmarks bröstkarameller?" (in Swedish). Retrieved 21 July 2014.
  5. Språktidningen, "Så snabbt ökar hen i svenska medier", 18 March 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  6. "The Local", "Gender-neutral 'hen' makes its legal debut", 14 December 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  7. Terese Allert, "Allt vanligare med hen i barnböcker", Aftonbladet , 15 March 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  8. "Håll hen borta från våra barn". 17 March 2012.
  9. Swedish For Immigrants level 3.

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References