Protein phosphatase

Last updated

A protein phosphatase is a phosphatase enzyme that removes a phosphate group from the phosphorylated amino acid residue of its substrate protein. Protein phosphorylation is one of the most common forms of reversible protein posttranslational modification (PTM), with up to 30% of all proteins being phosphorylated at any given time. Protein kinases (PKs) are the effectors of phosphorylation and catalyse the transfer of a γ-phosphate from ATP to specific amino acids on proteins. Several hundred PKs exist in mammals and are classified into distinct super-families. Proteins are phosphorylated predominantly on Ser, Thr and Tyr residues, which account for 79.3, 16.9 and 3.8% respectively of the phosphoproteome, at least in mammals. In contrast, protein phosphatases (PPs) are the primary effectors of dephosphorylation and can be grouped into three main classes based on sequence, structure and catalytic function. The largest class of PPs is the phosphoprotein phosphatase (PPP) family comprising PP1, PP2A, PP2B, PP4, PP5, PP6 and PP7, and the protein phosphatase Mg2+- or Mn2+-dependent (PPM) family, composed primarily of PP2C. The protein Tyr phosphatase (PTP) super-family forms the second group, [1] and the aspartate-based protein phosphatases the third. The protein pseudophosphatases form part of the larger phosphatase family, and in most cases are thought to be catalytically inert, instead functioning as phosphate-binding proteins, integrators of signalling or subcellular traps. Examples of membrane-spanning protein phosphatases containing both active (phosphatase) and inactive (pseudophosphatase) domains linked in tandem are known, [1] conceptually similar to the kinase and pseudokinase domain polypeptide structure of the JAK pseudokinases. [2] [3] A complete comparative analysis of human phosphatases and pseudophosphatases has been completed by Manning and colleagues, [4] forming a companion piece to the ground-breaking analysis of the human kinome, which encodes the complete set of ~536 human protein kinases. [5]

Contents

Mechanism

Phosphorylation involves the transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to the enzyme, the energy for which comes from hydrolysing ATP into ADP or AMP. However, dephosphorylation releases phosphates into solution as free ions, because attaching them back to ATP would require energy input.

Cysteine-dependent phosphatases (CDPs) catalyse the hydrolysis of a phosphoester bond via a phospho-cysteine intermediate. [6]

Mechanism of Tyrosine dephosphorylation by a CDP PhosphataseMech.svg
Mechanism of Tyrosine dephosphorylation by a CDP

The free cysteine nucleophile forms a bond with the phosphorus atom of the phosphate moiety, and the P-O bond linking the phosphate group to the tyrosine is protonated, either by a suitably positioned acidic amino acid residue (Asp in the diagram below) or a water molecule. The phospho-cysteine intermediate is then hydrolysed by another water molecule, thus regenerating the active site for another dephosphorylation reaction.

Metallo-phosphatases (e.g. PP2C) co-ordinate 2 catalytically essential metal ions within their active site. There is currently some confusion of the identity of these metal ions, as successive attempts to identify them yield different answers. There is currently evidence that these metals could be magnesium, manganese, iron, zinc, or any combination thereof. It is thought that a hydroxyl ion bridging the two metal ions takes part in nucleophilic attack on the phosphorus ion.

Sub-types

Phosphatases can be subdivided based upon their substrate specificity.

ClassExampleSubstrateReference
Tyrosine-specific phosphatases PTP1B Phosphotyrosine [7]
Serine-/threonine-specific phosphatasesPP2C (PPP2CA)Phosphoserine/-threonine [8]
Dual specificity phosphatasesVHR, DUSP1–DUSP28 Phosphotyrosine/-serine/-threonine [9]
Histidine phosphatasePHPPhospho-Histidine [10]

Serine/threonine PP (PPM/PPP) families

Protein Ser/Thr phosphatases were originally classified using biochemical assays as either, type 1 (PP1) or type 2 (PP2), and were further subdivided based on metal-ion requirement (PP2A, no metal ion; PP2B, Ca2+ stimulated; PP2C, Mg2+ dependent) (Moorhead et al., 2007). The protein Ser/Thr phosphatases PP1, PP2A and PP2B of the PPP family, together with PP2C of the PPM family, account for the majority of Ser/Thr PP activity in vivo (Barford et al., 1998). In the brain, they are present in different subcellular compartments in neuronal and glial cells, and contribute to different neuronal functions.

PPM

The PPM family, which includes PP2C and pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase, are enzymes with Mn2+/Mg2+ metal ions that are resistant to classic inhibitors and toxins of the PPP family. Unlike most PPPs, PP2C exists in only one subunit but, like PTPs, it displays a wide variety of structural domains that confer unique functions. In addition, PP2C does not seem to be evolutionarily related to the major family of Ser/Thr PPs and has no sequence homology to ancient PPP enzymes. The current assumption is that PPMs evolved separately from PPPs but converged during evolutionary development.

Class I: Cys-based PTPs

Class I PTPs constitute the largest family. They contain the well-known classical receptor (a) and non-receptor PTPs (b), which are strictly tyrosine-specific, and the DSPs (c) which target Ser/Thr as well as Tyr and are the most diverse in terms of substrate specificity.

Class III: Cys-based PTPs

The third class of PTPs contains three cell cycle regulators, CDC25A, CDC25B and CDC25C, which dephosphorylate CDKs at their N-terminal, a reaction required to drive progression of the cell cycle. They are themselves regulated by phosphorylation and are degraded in response to DNA damage to prevent chromosomal abnormalities.

Class IV: Asp-based DSPs

The haloacid dehalogenase (HAD) superfamily is a further PP group that uses Asp as a nucleophile and was recently shown to have dual-specificity. These PPs can target both Ser and Tyr, but are thought to have greater specificity towards Tyr. A subfamily of HADs, the Eyes Absent Family (Eya), are also transcription factors and can therefore regulate their own phosphorylation and that of transcriptional cofactor/s, and contribute to the control of gene transcription. The combination of these two functions in Eya reveals a greater complexity of transcriptional gene control than previously thought . A further member of this class is the RNA polymerase II C-terminal domain phosphatase. While this family remains poorly understood, it is known to play important roles in development and nuclear morphology.

Alternative Structural Classification

Many phosphatases are promiscuous with respect to substrate type, or can evolve quickly to change substrate. An alternative structural classification [4] notes that 20 distinct protein folds have phosphatase activity, and 10 of these contain protein phosphatases.

Physiological relevance

Phosphatases act in opposition to kinases/phosphorylases, which add phosphate groups to proteins. The addition of a phosphate group may activate or de-activate an enzyme (e.g., kinase signalling pathways [11] ) or enable a protein-protein interaction to occur (e.g., SH2 domains [12] ); therefore phosphatases are integral to many signal transduction pathways. Phosphate addition and removal do not necessarily correspond to enzyme activation or inhibition, and that several enzymes have separate phosphorylation sites for activating or inhibiting functional regulation. CDK, for example, can be either activated or deactivated depending on the specific amino acid residue being phosphorylated. Phosphates are important in signal transduction because they regulate the proteins to which they are attached. To reverse the regulatory effect, the phosphate is removed. This occurs on its own by hydrolysis, or is mediated by protein phosphatases. [13] [14]

Protein phosphorylation plays a crucial role in biological functions and controls nearly every cellular process, including metabolism, gene transcription and translation, cell-cycle progression, cytoskeletal rearrangement, protein-protein interactions, protein stability, cell movement, and apoptosis. These processes depend on the highly regulated and opposing actions of PKs and PPs, through changes in the phosphorylation of key proteins. Histone phosphorylation, along with methylation, ubiquitination, sumoylation and acetylation, also regulates access to DNA through chromatin reorganisation. [15]

One of the major switches for neuronal activity is the activation of PKs and PPs by elevated intracellular calcium. The degree of activation of the various isoforms of PKs and PPs is controlled by their individual sensitivities to calcium. Furthermore, a wide range of specific inhibitors and targeting partners such as scaffolding, anchoring, and adaptor proteins also contribute to the control of PKs and PPs and recruit them into signalling complexes in neuronal cells. Such signalling complexes typically act to bring PKs and PPs in close proximity with target substrates and signalling molecules as well as enhance their selectivity by restricting accessibility to these substrate proteins. Phosphorylation events, therefore, are controlled not only by the balanced activity of PKs and PPs but also by their restricted localisation. Regulatory subunits and domains serve to restrict specific proteins to particular subcellular compartments and to modulate protein specificity. These regulators are essential for maintaining the coordinated action of signalling cascades, which in neuronal cells include short-term (synaptic) and long-term (nuclear) signalling. These functions are, in part, controlled by allosteric modification by secondary messengers and reversible protein phosphorylation. [16] [17]

It is thought that around 30% of known PPs are present in all tissues, with the rest showing some level of tissue restriction. While protein phosphorylation is a cell-wide regulatory mechanism, recent quantitative proteomics studies have shown that phosphorylation preferentially targets nuclear proteins. Many PPs that regulate nuclear events, are often enriched or exclusively present in the nucleus. In neuronal cells, PPs are present in multiple cellular compartments and play a critical role at both pre- and post-synapses, in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus where they regulate gene expression. [18]

Phosphoprotein phosphatase is activated by the hormone insulin, which indicates that there is a high concentration of glucose in the blood. The enzyme then acts to dephosphorylate other enzymes, such as phosphorylase kinase, glycogen phosphorylase, and glycogen synthase. This leads to phosphorylase kinase and glycogen phosphorylase's becoming inactive, while glycogen synthase is activated. As a result, glycogen synthesis is increased and glycogenolysis is decreased, and the net effect is for energy to enter and be stored inside the cell. [19]

Learning and memory

In the adult brain, PPs are essential for synaptic functions and are involved in the negative regulation of higher-order brain functions such as learning and memory. Dysregulation of their activity has been linked to several disorders including cognitive ageing and neurodegeneration, as well as cancer, diabetes and obesity. [20]

Examples

Human genes that encode proteins with phosphoprotein phosphatase activity include:

Protein serine/threonine phosphatase

Protein tyrosine phosphatase

Dual-specificity phosphatase

Ungrouped

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kinase</span> Enzyme catalyzing transfer of phosphate groups onto specific substrates

In biochemistry, a kinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from high-energy, phosphate-donating molecules to specific substrates. This process is known as phosphorylation, where the high-energy ATP molecule donates a phosphate group to the substrate molecule. As a result, kinase produces a phosphorylated substrate and ADP. Conversely, it is referred to as dephosphorylation when the phosphorylated substrate donates a phosphate group and ADP gains a phosphate group. These two processes, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, occur four times during glycolysis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphorylation</span> Chemical process of introducing a phosphate

In biochemistry, phosphorylation is the attachment of a phosphate group to a molecule or an ion. This process and its inverse, dephosphorylation, are common in biology. Protein phosphorylation often activates many enzymes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein kinase A</span> Family of enzymes

In cell biology, protein kinase A (PKA) is a family of serine-threonine kinase whose activity is dependent on cellular levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP). PKA is also known as cAMP-dependent protein kinase. PKA has several functions in the cell, including regulation of glycogen, sugar, and lipid metabolism. It should not be confused with 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphatase</span> Enzyme which catalyzes the removal of a phosphate group from a molecule

In biochemistry, a phosphatase is an enzyme that uses water to cleave a phosphoric acid monoester into a phosphate ion and an alcohol. Because a phosphatase enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of its substrate, it is a subcategory of hydrolases. Phosphatase enzymes are essential to many biological functions, because phosphorylation and dephosphorylation serve diverse roles in cellular regulation and signaling. Whereas phosphatases remove phosphate groups from molecules, kinases catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups to molecules from ATP. Together, kinases and phosphatases direct a form of post-translational modification that is essential to the cell's regulatory network.

Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis or the process of converting glucose into glycogen in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage. This process is activated during rest periods following the Cori cycle, in the liver, and also activated by insulin in response to high glucose levels.

In biochemistry, dephosphorylation is the removal of a phosphate group from an organic compound by hydrolysis. It is a reversible post-translational modification. Dephosphorylation and its counterpart, phosphorylation, activate and deactivate enzymes by detaching or attaching phosphoric esters and anhydrides. A notable occurrence of dephosphorylation is the conversion of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glycogen synthase</span> Enzyme class, includes all types of glycogen/starch synthases

Glycogen synthase is a key enzyme in glycogenesis, the conversion of glucose into glycogen. It is a glycosyltransferase that catalyses the reaction of UDP-glucose and n to yield UDP and n+1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein tyrosine phosphatase</span> Class of enzymes

Protein tyrosine phosphatases (EC 3.1.3.48, systematic name protein-tyrosine-phosphate phosphohydrolase) are a group of enzymes that remove phosphate groups from phosphorylated tyrosine residues on proteins:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Receptor tyrosine kinase</span> Class of enzymes

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are the high-affinity cell surface receptors for many polypeptide growth factors, cytokines, and hormones. Of the 90 unique tyrosine kinase genes identified in the human genome, 58 encode receptor tyrosine kinase proteins. Receptor tyrosine kinases have been shown not only to be key regulators of normal cellular processes but also to have a critical role in the development and progression of many types of cancer. Mutations in receptor tyrosine kinases lead to activation of a series of signalling cascades which have numerous effects on protein expression. The receptors are generally activated by dimerization and substrate presentation. Receptor tyrosine kinases are part of the larger family of protein tyrosine kinases, encompassing the receptor tyrosine kinase proteins which contain a transmembrane domain, as well as the non-receptor tyrosine kinases which do not possess transmembrane domains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphorylase kinase</span>

Phosphorylase kinase (PhK) is a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase which activates glycogen phosphorylase to release glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen. PhK phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase at two serine residues, triggering a conformational shift which favors the more active glycogen phosphorylase "a" form over the less active glycogen phosphorylase b.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PTPN1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Tyrosine-protein phosphatase non-receptor type 1 also known as protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is an enzyme that is the founding member of the protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) family. In humans it is encoded by the PTPN1 gene. PTP1B is a negative regulator of the insulin signaling pathway and is considered a promising potential therapeutic target, in particular for treatment of type 2 diabetes. It has also been implicated in the development of breast cancer and has been explored as a potential therapeutic target in that avenue as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myosin-light-chain phosphatase</span>

Myosin light-chain phosphatase, also called myosin phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.53; systematic name [myosin-light-chain]-phosphate phosphohydrolase), is an enzyme (specifically a serine/threonine-specific protein phosphatase) that dephosphorylates the regulatory light chain of myosin II:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PTPN7</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 7 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PTPN7 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein phosphorylation</span> Process of introducing a phosphate group on to a protein

Protein phosphorylation is a reversible post-translational modification of proteins in which an amino acid residue is phosphorylated by a protein kinase by the addition of a covalently bound phosphate group. Phosphorylation alters the structural conformation of a protein, causing it to become activated, deactivated, or otherwise modifying its function. Approximately 13,000 human proteins have sites that are phosphorylated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LMTK2</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Serine/threonine-protein kinase LMTK2 also known as Lemur tyrosine kinase 2 (LMTK2) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the LMTK2 gene.

A non-receptor tyrosine kinase (nRTK) is a cytosolic enzyme that is responsible for catalysing the transfer of a phosphate group from a nucleoside triphosphate donor, such as ATP, to tyrosine residues in proteins. Non-receptor tyrosine kinases are a subgroup of protein family tyrosine kinases, enzymes that can transfer the phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine residue of a protein (phosphorylation). These enzymes regulate many cellular functions by switching on or switching off other enzymes in a cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein phosphatase 1</span>

Protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) belongs to a certain class of phosphatases known as protein serine/threonine phosphatases. This type of phosphatase includes metal-dependent protein phosphatases (PPMs) and aspartate-based phosphatases. PP1 has been found to be important in the control of glycogen metabolism, muscle contraction, cell progression, neuronal activities, splicing of RNA, mitosis, cell division, apoptosis, protein synthesis, and regulation of membrane receptors and channels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">YopH, N-terminal</span>

In molecular biology, YopH, N-terminal refers to an evolutionary conserved protein domain. This entry represents the N-terminal domain of YopH protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tyrosine phosphorylation</span> Phosphorylation of peptidyl-tyrosine

Tyrosine phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate (PO43−) group to the amino acid tyrosine on a protein. It is one of the main types of protein phosphorylation. This transfer is made possible through enzymes called tyrosine kinases. Tyrosine phosphorylation is a key step in signal transduction and the regulation of enzymatic activity.

The phosphatome of an organism is the set of phosphatase genes in its genome. Phosphatases are enzymes that catalyze the removal of phosphate from biomolecules. Over half of all cellular proteins are modified by phosphorylation which typically controls their functions. Protein phosphorylation is controlled by the opposing actions of protein phosphatases and protein kinases. Most phosphorylation sites are not linked to a specific phosphatase, so the phosphatome approach allows a global analysis of dephosphorylation, screening to find the phosphatase responsible for a given reaction, and comparative studies between different phosphatases, similar to how protein kinase research has been impacted by the kinome approach.

References

  1. 1 2 Tonks NK (November 2006). "Protein tyrosine phosphatases: from genes, to function, to disease". Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology. 7 (11): 833–46. doi:10.1038/nrm2039. PMID   17057753. S2CID   1302726.
  2. ↑ Reiterer V, Eyers PA, Farhan H (September 2014). "Day of the dead: pseudokinases and pseudophosphatases in physiology and disease". Trends in Cell Biology. 24 (9): 489–505. doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2014.03.008. PMID   24818526.
  3. ↑ Mendrola JM, Shi F, Park JH, Lemmon MA (August 2013). "Receptor tyrosine kinases with intracellular pseudokinase domains". Biochemical Society Transactions. 41 (4): 1029–36. doi:10.1042/BST20130104. PMC   3777422 . PMID   23863174.
  4. 1 2 Chen MJ, Dixon JE, Manning G (April 2017). "Genomics and evolution of protein phosphatases". Science Signaling. 10 (474): eaag1796. doi:10.1126/scisignal.aag1796. PMID   28400531. S2CID   41041971.
  5. ↑ Manning G, Whyte DB, Martinez R, Hunter T, Sudarsanam S (December 2002). "The protein kinase complement of the human genome". Science. 298 (5600): 1912–34. Bibcode:2002Sci...298.1912M. doi:10.1126/science.1075762. PMID   12471243. S2CID   26554314.
  6. ↑ Barford D (November 1996). "Molecular mechanisms of the protein serine/threonine phosphatases". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 21 (11): 407–12. doi:10.1016/S0968-0004(96)10060-8. PMID   8987393.
  7. ↑ Zhang ZY (2002). "Protein tyrosine phosphatases: structure and function, substrate specificity, and inhibitor development". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 42: 209–34. doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.083001.144616. PMID   11807171.
  8. ↑ Mumby MC, Walter G (October 1993). "Protein serine/threonine phosphatases: structure, regulation, and functions in cell growth". Physiological Reviews. 73 (4): 673–99. doi:10.1152/physrev.1993.73.4.673. PMID   8415923.
  9. ↑ Camps M, Nichols A, Arkinstall S (January 2000). "Dual specificity phosphatases: a gene family for control of MAP kinase function". FASEB Journal. 14 (1): 6–16. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.14.1.6 . PMID   10627275. S2CID   17135681.
  10. ↑ Bäumer, Nicole; Mäurer, Anette; Krieglstein, Josef; Klumpp, Susanne (2006). "Expression of Protein Histidine Phosphatase in Escherichia coli, Purification, and Determination of Enzyme Activity". Protein Phosphatase Protocols. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 365. pp. 247–260. doi:10.1385/1-59745-267-X:247. ISBN   1-59745-267-X. PMID   17200567.
  11. ↑ Seger R, Krebs EG (June 1995). "The MAPK signaling cascade". FASEB Journal. 9 (9): 726–35. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.9.9.7601337 . PMID   7601337. S2CID   23298305.
  12. ↑ Ladbury JE (January 2007). "Measurement of the formation of complexes in tyrosine kinase-mediated signal transduction". Acta Crystallographica Section D. 63 (Pt 1): 26–31. doi:10.1107/S0907444906046373. PMC   2483503 . PMID   17164523.
  13. ↑ J B Bliska; K L Guan; J E Dixon; S Falkow (15 February 1991). "Tyrosine phosphate hydrolysis of host proteins by an essential Yersinia virulence determinant". PNAS . 88 (4): 1187–1191. Bibcode:1991PNAS...88.1187B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.4.1187 . PMC   50982 . PMID   1705028.
  14. ↑ Morton, R. K. (April 1957). "The kinetics of hydrolysis of phenyl phosphate by alkaline phosphatases" (PDF). The Biochemical Journal . 65 (4): 674–682. doi:10.1042/bj0650674. PMC   1199935 . PMID   13426083 . Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  15. ↑ Dorine Rossetto; Nikita Avvakumov; Jacques Côté (2012). "Histone phosphorylation". Epigenetics . 7 (10): 1098–1108. doi: 10.4161/epi.21975 . PMC   3469451 . PMID   22948226.
  16. ↑ Linda C. Hsieh-Wilson; Patrick B. Allen; Takuo Watanabe; Angus C. Nairn; Paul Greengard (1999). "Characterization of the Neuronal Targeting Protein Spinophilin and Its Interactions with Protein Phosphatase-1†". Biochemistry . 38 (14): 4365–4373. doi:10.1021/bi982900m. PMID   10194355 . Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  17. ↑ Young-Mi Kim; Takuo Watanabe; Patrick B. Allen; Young-Myoung Kim; Shin-Jeong Lee; Paul Greengard; Angus C. Nairn; Young-Guen Kwon (April 2003). "PNUTS, a Protein Phosphatase 1 (PP1) Nuclear Targeting Subunit". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 276 (16): 13819–13828. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M209621200 . PMID   12574161 . Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  18. ↑ L Xiao; L-L Gong; D Yuan; M Deng; X-M Zeng; L-L Chen; L Zhang; Qin Yan; J-P Liu; X-H Hu; S-M Sun; J Liu; H-L Ma; C-B Zheng; H Fu; P-C Chen; J-Q Zhao; S-S Xie; L-J Zhou; Y-M Xiao; W-B Liu; J Zhang; Y Liu; D W-C Li (26 February 2010). "Protein phosphatase-1 regulates Akt1 signal transduction pathway to control gene expression, cell survival and differentiation". Cell Death & Differentiation . 17 (9): 1448–1462. doi: 10.1038/cdd.2010.16 . PMID   20186153.
  19. ↑ Darya Zibrova; Rolf Grempler; Rüdiger Streicher; Stefan G. Kauschke (May 14, 2008). "Inhibition of the interaction between protein phosphatase 1 glycogen-targeting subunit and glycogen phosphorylase increases glycogen synthesis in primary rat hepatocytes". Biochemical Journal . 412 (2): 359–366. doi:10.1042/BJ20071483. PMID   18298402 . Retrieved 30 October 2021.
  20. ↑ Knobler, Hilla; Elson, Ari (May 2014). "Metabolic regulation by protein tyrosine phosphatases". Journal of Biomedical Research. 28 (3): 157–168. doi:10.7555/JBR.28.20140012. ISSN   1674-8301. PMC   4085553 . PMID   25013399.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.