Mindset

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A well-known example of a contrasting mindset is fixed versus growth Fixed versus growth mindset.png
A well-known example of a contrasting mindset is fixed versus growth

A mindset refers to an established set of attitudes of a person or group concerning culture, values, philosophy, frame of reference, outlook, or disposition. [1] [2] It may also arise from a person's worldview or beliefs about the meaning of life. [3]

Contents

Some scholars claim that people can have multiple types of mindsets. [4] Some of these types include a growth mindset, fixed mindset, poverty mindset, abundance mindset, and positive mindset among others that make up a person's overall mindset. [5]

More broadly, scholars have found that mindset is associated with a range of functional effects in different areas of people's lives. This includes influencing a person's capacity for perception by functioning like a filter, a frame of reference, a meaning-making system, and a pattern of perception. Mindset is described as shaping a person's capacity for development by being associated with passive or conditional learning, incremental or horizontal learning, and transformative or vertical learning. Mindset is also believed to influence a person's behavior, having deliberative or implemental action phases, as well as being associated with technical or adaptive approaches to leadership. [6]

A mindset could create an incentive to adopt (or accept) previous behaviors, choices, or tools, sometimes known as cognitive inertia or groupthink. When a prevailing mindset is limiting or inappropriate, it may be difficult to counteract the grip of mindset on analysis and decision-making. [7]

In cognitive psychology, a mindset is the cognitive process activated in a task. [8] In addition to the field of cognitive psychology, the study of mindset is evident in the social sciences and other fields (such as positive psychology). Characteristic of this area of study is its fragmentation among academic disciplines. [8] [6]

History

Numerous scholars have identified mindset history as being a critical gap in contemporary literature and also in current approaches to mindset education and training. [6] [8]

The first dedicated review of mindset history found that mindset psychology has a century-long history of explicit research and practice, with its origin phase taking place between 1908 and 1939, early inquiries occurring between 1940 and 1987, and contemporary bodies of work emerging in and beyond 1988. This review also identified some of the traditions of research and practice that are closely related to the origins and history of mindset psychology, some of which span back hundreds and thousands of years. Then, there are the lineages of research and practice that did not explicitly use the term mindset, but which bear some resemblance to it and are in some way related to this history. [6]

Research

Mindset research is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry. Some of the earliest studies to explicitly include mindset as an area of focus were conducted in the 1910s and 1920s, primarily within a psychology and education context. This includes studies by scholars including Thaddeus Lincoln Bolton (1909), Edward Kellogg Strong and Margaret Hart Strong (1913), Edward Lee Thorndike (1913), Alexander James Inglis (1918), William Heard Kilpatrick (1921), and more. [9]

Between the 1980s and 2000s, mindset research and its applications began to expand into other areas, including Glen Fisher’s (1988) studies in international relations, Ellen Langer’s (1989) research on mindfulness, Peter Gollwitzer’s (1989) psychology of action phases, [10] [11] Donella Meadows’ (1991) theory of systems change, Stephen Rhinesmith’s (1992) work on global mindsets, Ronald Heifetz’s (1994) practice of adaptive leadership, Carol Dweck’s (2006) concept of implicit theories, and Robert Kegan’s and Lisa Lahey’s (2009) theory of adult development. [12]

In 2024, the first systematic reviews of the mindset field were published by researcher Ash Buchanan, exploring how mindset definitions, theories, and type-based classifications have changed over time and across various contexts. The findings from these reviews were published in the Handbook of Mindset Research. [9] Buchanan also made a significant contribution to the field by presenting the first comprehensive view of mindset psychology based on a systematic study of the mindset research. [12]

Politics

A political example is the "Cold War mindset" in the U.S. and the USSR. This mindset reflects how people globally perceived the levels of security between the two nations. This mindset suggested that if one nation grew in strength and power, the other was threatened and vice versa. The main goal of the Cold War Mindset was to strengthen one's own nation's military and alliances while keeping the other nation's power limited. [13] Also included in this mindset is the belief in game theory, in a chain of command in control of nuclear materials, and in the mutual assured destruction of both in a nuclear war. [14] This mindset prevented an attack by either country, but deterrence theory has made assessments of the Cold War mindset a subject of controversy. [15]

Modern military theory attempts to challenge entrenched mindsets in asymmetric warfare, terrorism, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. These threats are "a revolution in military affairs", requiring rapid adaptation to new threats and circumstances. [16]

Systems theory

Building on Magoroh Maruyama's concept of mindscape, [17] [18] mindset includes a cultural and social orientation: hierarchical and egalitarian individualism, hierarchical and egalitarian collectivism, hierarchic and egalitarian synergism, and hierarchical and egalitarian populism. [19]

Collective mindset

Collective mindsets are described in Edwin Hutchins's Cognition in the Wild (1995) [20] and Maximilian Senges' Knowledge Entrepreneurship in Universities (2007). [21] Hutchins analyzed a team of naval navigators as a cognitive unit or computational system, and Senges explained how a collective mindset is part of university strategy and practice. [21]

Parallels exist in collective intelligence [22] and the wisdom of the crowd. [23] Zara said that since collective reflection is more explicit, discursive, and conversational, it needs a good Gestell . [24]

Erik H. Erikson's analysis of group-identities and what he calls a "life-plan" is relevant to a collective mindset. Erikson cites Native Americans who were meant to undergo a reeducation process to instill a modern "life-plan" which advocated housing and wealth; the natives' collective historic identity as buffalo hunters was oriented around such fundamentally different motivations that communication about life plans was difficult. [25]

An institution is related to collective mindset; an entrepreneurial mindset refers to a person who "values uncertainty in the marketplace and seeks to continuously identify opportunities with the potential to lead to important innovations". [26] An institution with an entrepreneurial philosophy will have entrepreneurial goals and strategies. It fosters an entrepreneurial milieu, allowing each entity to pursue emerging opportunities. A collective mindset fosters values which lead to a particular practice. Hitt cites the five dimensions of an entrepreneurial mindset as "autonomy, innovativeness, risk taking, proactiveness, and competitive aggressiveness". [27]

Theories

The study of mindsets includes definition, measurement, and categorization. Scholars in the same discipline differ. [8]

Mindset agency

Sagiv and Schwarts defined cultural values [28] to explain the nature, functions, and variables which characterize mindset agency. [29] [30] They posited three bipolar dimensions of culture, based on values: [28] cognitive (embedded or autonomous), figurative (mastery or harmony), and operative (hierarchical or egalitarian).

Mindscape theory

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measures psychological functions which, paired with social attitudes, combine to generate personality types that may be evaluated by exploring individual preferences. Maruyama's mindscape theory measures individuals on a scale of characteristics and places them into one of four personality categories. [31] [32]

Fixed and growth mindsets

According to Carol Dweck, individuals can be placed on a continuum according to their views about where ability originates, from a fixed to a growth mindset. An individual's mindset affects the "motivation to practice and learn". [33]

People with a fixed mindset believe that "intelligence is static", and little can be done to improve ability. [34] Feedback is seen as "evaluation of their underlying ability" and success is seen as a result of this ability, not any effort expended. Failure is intimidating, since it "suggests constraints or limits they would not be able to overcome". [33] [35] Those with a fixed mindset tend to avoid challenges, give up easily, and focus on the outcome. They believe that their abilities are fixed, and effort has little value. [36]

Those with a growth mindset believe that "intelligence can be developed", and their abilities can be increased by learning. [34] They tend to embrace challenges, persevere in the face of adversity, accept and learn from failure, focus on process rather than outcome, and see abilities as skills which are developed through effort. [36] Feedback and failure are seen as opportunities to increase ability, signaling the "need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master the new learning opportunity". [33]

Grit, a personality trait combining determination and perseverance, is related to a growth mindset. [37] Keown and Bourke discussed the importance of a growth mindset and grit. Their 2019 study found that people with lower economic status had a greater chance of success if they had a growth mindset and were willing to work through tribulation. [38]

Much of Dweck's research was related to the effect of a student's mindset on classroom performance. For students to develop a growth mindset, a nurturing classroom culture must be established with appropriate praise and encouragement. [39] According to Dweck, "Praising students for the process they have engaged in—the effort they applied, the strategies they used, the choices they made, the persistence they displayed, and so on—yields more long-term benefits than telling them they are 'smart' when they succeed". [39] Teachers need to design meaningful learning activities for their students: "The teacher should portray challenges as fun and exciting, while portraying easy tasks as boring and less useful for the brain". [39]

A second strategy to promote a growth mindset in the classroom is more explicit, establishing personal goals, and having students "write about and share with one another something they used to be poor at and now are very good at." [39] Hinda Hussein studied the positive effect of reflective journal writing on students' growth mindset; journaling can improve a student's conceptual knowledge and enhance the understanding of their thoughts. [40] Dweck has identified the word "yet" as a valuable tool to assess learning. If a teacher hears students saying that they are not good at something or cannot do something, they should interject "not yet" to reinforce the idea that ability and motivation are fluid. [39]

Dweck and Jo Boaler indicate a fixed mindset can lead to sex differences in education, which can partially explain low achievement and participation by minority and female students. [41] Boaler builds on Dweck's research to show that "gender differences in mathematics performance only existed among fixed mindset students". [41] Boaler and Dweck say that people with growth mindsets can gain knowledge. Boaler said, "The key growth mindset message was that effort changes the brain by forming new connections, and that students control this process. The growth mindset intervention halted the students' decline in grades and started the students on a new pathway of improvement and high achievement". [42]

L. S. Blackwell presented research in 2015 exploring whether growth mindsets can be promoted in minority groups. [43] Blackwell builds on Dweck's research, observing minority groups and finding that "students with a growth mindset had stronger learning goals than the fixed mindset students." These students "had much more positive attitudes toward effort, agreeing that 'when something is hard, it just makes me want to work more on it, not less'". Students with a fixed mindset were more likely to say that "if you're not good at a subject, working hard won't make you good at it” and “when I work hard at something, it makes me feel like I'm not very smart". [43]

Dweck's research on growth and fixed mindsets is useful in intervening with at-risk students, dispelling negative stereotypes in education held by teachers and students, understanding the impacts of self-theories on resilience, and understanding how praise can foster a growth mindset and positively impact student motivation. [44] There has also been movement towards the application of Dweck's mindset research in non-academic environments, such as the workplace. [45] Other scholars have conducted research building on her findings. A 2018 study by Rhew et al. suggested that a growth-mindset intervention can increase the motivation of adolescent special-education participants. [46] A 2019 study by Wang et al. suggested that substance use has adverse effects on adolescent reasoning. [47] Developing a growth mindset in these adolescents was shown to reduce this adverse effect. These studies illustrate how educators can intervene, encouraging a growth mindset, by allowing students to see that their behavior can be changed with effort. [47] Criticism has been directed at "growth mindset" and related research, however. Moreau et al. (2019) suggest "that overemphasizing the malleability of abilities and other traits can have negative consequences for individuals, science, and society." [48]

Follow up research after the release of her book has led Dweck to be quoted as saying "Nobody has a growth mindset in everything all the time." along with the acknowledgement of the reality of the false growth mindset, and the truer growth mindset. [49] One of Dweck's concerns being that educators were giving praise based on effort alone, when the results gained did not she believe merit praise. Researchers noted adults within a study "who agree with growth mindset, but do not behave as though they believe ability can change" as holding a false growth mindset. [50]

Students and teachers

Elements of personality (such as sensitivity to mistakes and setbacks) may predispose toward a particular mindset, which can be developed and reshaped through interactions. [51] In a number of studies, Dweck and her colleagues noted that alterations in mindset could be achieved through "praising the process through which success was achieved", [52] "having [college aged students] read compelling scientific articles that support one view or the other", [51] or teaching junior-high-school students "that every time they try hard and learn something new, their brain forms new connections that, over time, make them smarter." [53]

Much research in education focuses on a student's ability to adopt a growth mindset, and less attention is paid to teachers' mindsets and their influence on students. Hattie writes, "Differing mindsets, or assumptions, that teachers possess about themselves and their students play a significant role in determining their expectations, teaching practices, and how students perceive their own mindset." [54]

A study by Patrick and Joshi explored how teachers explain growth and fixed mindsets, with two major findings in 150 semi-structured interviews. First, they found that teachers' prior beliefs about learning and students influenced how they engaged with their mindsets. [55] Second, they found that many teachers oversimplified growth and fixed mindsets as positive and negative traits. [55]

A study conducted by Fiona S. Seaton (2018) examined the impact of teacher training to influence mindset. The teachers in this study had six training sessions, and Seaton found that the sessions had an impact on their mindsets which was sustained three months afterward. [56] The results of this study suggest that adult mindsets are malleable, and can shift with appropriate supports. [56]

Benefit mindset

In 2015, Ash Buchanan and Margaret L. Kern proposed a benefit mindset: an evolution of the fixed and growth mindsets. The benefit mindset describes society's leaders, who promote individual and collective well-being: people who discover their strengths to contribute to causes greater than the self. They question why they do what they do, positioning their actions within a purposeful context. [57]

Global mindset

Originating from the study of organizational leadership and coinciding with the growth of multinational corporations during the 1980s, organizations observed that executive effectiveness did not necessarily translate cross-culturally. A global mindset emerged as an explanation. [58] Cross-cultural leaders were hypothesized to need an additional skill, ability, or proficiency (a global mindset) to be effective regardless of culture or context. [59] [60] Cultural agility [61] refers to such a need. A defining characteristic of the study of global mindset is the variety with which scholars define it, but they typically agree that global mindset and its development increase global effectiveness for individuals and organizations. [62]

Abundance and scarcity

People with an abundance mindset believe that there are enough resources for everyone, and see the glass as half-full; those with a scarcity mindset believe that there is a limited number of resources, and see the glass as half-empty. [63] Mehta and Zhu found that an "abundance mindset makes people think beyond established functionalities to explore broadly for solutions, thereby heightening creativity. In contrast, a scarcity mindset induces functional fixedness, thereby reducing creativity." [64]

Productive and defensive mindsets

According to Chris Argyris, organizations have two dominant mindsets: productive and defensive. [65] [66] The productive mindset is hinged in logic, focused on knowledge and its certifiable results –a decision-making mindset which is transparent and auditable. [66]

The defensive mindset is closed, self-protective and self-deceptive. It does not see the greater good, but centers on individual defense; truth, if perceived as harmful to the person concerned, would be denied. This may allow personal growth, but no organizational growth or development. [66]

Deliberative and implemental mindsets

The deliberative and implemental mindsets are part of the decision making process in goal setting and goal striving. When someone has a deliberative mindset, they are considering a variety of actions and have not yet settled on what they are going to do. This person will tend to be open to alternative options when presented and will explore ideas until they have decided upon a course of action. This mindset is connected to the idea of goal setting. [67]

After someone narrows down their options and makes a commitment to follow a particular path, they will have an implemental mindset. People with an implemental mindset are less open to alternative courses of action because they have already decided what they are going to do and now focus more energy on goal striving, rather than goal setting. [67]

The deliberative mindset has been recognized as important for coming to conclusions in order to make a well-planned goal, but it has negative consequences for goal striving once a goal is already in place. On the other hand, the implemental mindset helps people to focus their behavior in a particular direction; this can be detrimental for someone who has not spent sufficient time with a deliberative mindset. [67]

Promotion and prevention mindsets

The promotion and prevention mindsets are motivational orientations that are focused on the outcomes or consequences of behavior. People with a promotion mindset focus on achievement and accomplishment. Those with a prevention mindset pay closer attention to avoiding negative outcomes. They act more out of a sense of obligation and the fulfillment of duty than to seek any sort of reward. Both of these mindsets can be caused or influenced by individual disposition or by environmental stimuli. Those who are dispositionally in a promotion mindset seek to make good things happen, and situations that encourage a promotion mindset are those in which there is a promise of gain. Those with a dispositional prevention mindset believe that they need to keep bad things from happening, and situations conducive to the prevention mindset are those in which the idea of duty is emphasized. [67]

Those with a promotion mindset are characterized as being eager and quick to act. They take initiative and move to cause improvements towards their ideal state. People with a prevention mindset are characterized as being cautious and careful, avoiding risks and any course of action that could potentially cause failure in reaching a goal. [67]

Criticism

In 2019 a larger randomized controlled trial by the Education Endowment Foundation for growth mindset training showed no significant increase in numeracy or literacy. [68] A 2024 study showed that growth mindset scales by Carol Dweck have psychometric comparability, however this study showed no connection between growth mindset and goal achievement. [69]

See also

Dual mentality

Notes

  1. ↑ "mindset, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press. March 2022.
  2. ↑ Buchanan, A. (2024). What is mindset? 100 definitions from the field. doi : 10.31234/osf.io/5xeqv
  3. ↑ "What is a Worldview?" . Retrieved 2019-12-10.
  4. ↑ Buchanan, A. (2024). Mindset types: A systematic review and meta-analysis. doi : 10.31234/osf.io/x5ge8
  5. ↑ "Mindset Tapping The Hidden Power Behind Every Success". 2023-06-14. Retrieved 2023-08-09.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Buchanan, A. (2024). The history of mindset: Honouring lineage, transcending partial stories, making mindset research and practice an interdisciplinary and intergenerational project. doi : 10.31234/osf.io/dsb97
  7. ↑ "Groupthink". Ethics Unwrapped.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  8. 1 2 3 4 French, R. P., II. (2016). The fuzziness of mindsets: Divergent conceptualizations and characterizations of mindset theory and praxis. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 24(4), 673–691. doi : 10.1108/IJOA-09-2014-0797
  9. 1 2 Buchanan, A. (2024). "Handbook of Mindset Research". Amazon. Retrieved 2024-05-11.
  10. ↑ Gollwitzer, P. M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), The Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundations of Social Behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 52–92). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  11. ↑ Gollwitzer, P. M. (2012). Mindset theory of action phases. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 526–545). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  12. 1 2 Buchanan, A. (2024). "The Nature of Mindset: A Field Guide and Psychology of Change, Transformation, and Healing". Amazon. Retrieved 2024-05-11.
  13. ↑ "Cold War Mentality", The Asia-Pacific Security Lexicon, ISEAS Publishing, pp. 45–47, 2002-12-31, doi:10.1355/9789812307071-009, ISBN   978-981-230-707-1 , retrieved 2024-11-21
  14. ↑ Capie, David; Evans, Paul (2002-01-02). Cold War Mentality. ISEAS Publishing. doi:10.1355/9789812307071-009. ISBN   978-981-230-707-1.
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  16. ↑ O'Hanlon, Michael E. (2018-09-11). "A retrospective on the so-called revolution in military affairs, 2000-2020". Brookings. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
  17. ↑ Maruyama, M. (1980). Mindscapes and Science Theories, Current Anthropology, Vol. 21, No. 5. (Oct., 1980), pp. 589-608
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  20. ↑ Hutchins, Edwin (1995). Cognition in the Wild. Cambridge, Mass.; London: MIT Press.
  21. 1 2 Senges, Maximilian (2007). Knowledge Entrepreneurship in Universities: Practice and Strategy in the Case of Internet Based Innovation Appropriation. Thesis. Barcelona: Universitat Oberta de Catalunya. https://www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/9117/tesi_msenges.pdf
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  23. ↑ Surowiecki, James (2005). The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few. London: Abacus.
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  25. ↑ Erikson, Erik H. (1959). Identity and the Life Cycle: Selected Papers. New York: International Universities Press.
  26. ↑ Hitt 2011, p. 371.
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  28. 1 2 Sagiv, Lilach; Schwartz, Shalom H. (2007). "Cultural values in organisations: insights for Europe". European Journal of International Management. 1 (3): 176. doi:10.1504/EJIM.2007.014692. ISSN   1751-6757.
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  32. ↑ Maruyama, Magoroh; Beals, Kenneth L.; Bharati, Agehananda; Fuchs, Helmuth; Gardner, Peter M.; Guilmet, George M.; Hahn, Robert A.; Kamau, Lucy Jayne; Kronenfeld, David B.; Kursh, Charlotte O.; Meeker, Joseph W. (October 1980). "Mindscapes and Science Theories [and Comments and Reply]". Current Anthropology. 21 (5): 589–608. doi:10.1086/202539. ISSN   0011-3204. S2CID   147362112.
  33. 1 2 3 Yousefi, H., & Khalkhali, V. (2020). The Effects of Mastery Versus Social-Comparison Praise on Students’ Persistence: A Role of Fixed Versus Growth Mindset. Education Sciences & Psychology, 55(1), 3–9.
  34. 1 2 Bates, Bob (2016). Learning theories simplified : 100+ theories and models from great thinkers...and how to apply them to teaching. London. ISBN   978-1-4739-2533-5. OCLC   926667644.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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  39. 1 2 3 4 5 Dweck, Carol S. (September 2010). "Even Geniuses Work Hard". Educational Leadership. 68 (1): 16–20.
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  42. ↑ Boaler 2013, p. 5.
  43. 1 2 Blackwell, Lisa S.; Rodriguez, Sylvia; Guerra-Carrillo, Belén (2015), Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A. (eds.), "Intelligence as a Malleable Construct", Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 263–282, doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_18, ISBN   978-1-4939-1562-0 , retrieved 2022-05-05
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  47. 1 2 Wang, Cuicui; Luo, Jie; Nie, Peixin; Wang, Daoyang (2019). "Growth Mindset Can Reduce the Adverse Effect of Substance Use on Adolescent Reasoning". Frontiers in Psychology. 10: 1852. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01852 . PMC   6705219 . PMID   31474906.
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  49. ↑ Gross-Loh, Christine (2016-12-16). "Don't Let Praise Become a Consolation Prize". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2023-08-09.
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  51. 1 2 Aldhous, P. (2008). Free your mind and watch it grow. New Scientist, 199(2670), 44-45.
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  54. ↑ Hattie, John (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. New York: Taylor and Francis.
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  56. 1 2 Seaton, Fiona S. (2018). "Empowering teachers to implement a growth mindset". Educational Psychology in Practice. 34 (1): 41–57. doi:10.1080/02667363.2017.1382333. S2CID   149189021.
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  62. ↑ French & Chang 2016.
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  65. ↑ Argyris, Chris (2004). Reasons and Rationalizations: The Limits to Organizational Knowledge. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
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  67. 1 2 3 4 5 Reeve, Johnmarshall (2018). Understanding Motivation and Emotion (7th ed.). Wiley. pp. 203–211.
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Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.

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Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a worldview, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music lesson</span> Type of formal instruction in music

Music lessons are a type of formal instruction in playing a musical instrument or singing. Typically, a student taking music lessons meets a music teacher for one-to-one training sessions ranging from 30 minutes to one hour in length over a period of weeks or years. Depending on lessons to be taught, students learn different skills relevant to the instruments used. Music teachers also assign technical exercises, musical pieces, and other activities to help the students improve their musical skills. While most music lessons are one-on-one (private), some teachers also teach groups of two to four students, and, for very basic instruction, some instruments are taught in large group lessons, such as piano and acoustic guitar. Since the widespread availability of high speed. low latency Internet, private lessons can also take place through live video chat using webcams, microphones and videotelephony online.

Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student. In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students by imparting to them skills, and the basis on how to learn a specific subject and schemata required to measure up to the specific performance requirement. Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-solving. Student-centered learning theory and practice are based on the constructivist learning theory that emphasizes the learner's critical role in constructing meaning from new information and prior experience.

The psychology of learning refers to theories and research on how individuals learn. There are many theories of learning. Some take on a more behaviorist approach which focuses on inputs and reinforcements. Other approaches, such as neuroscience and social cognition, focus more on how the brain's organization and structure influence learning. Some psychological approaches, such as social constructivism, focus more on one's interaction with the environment and with others. Other theories, such as those related to motivation, like the growth mindset, focus more on individuals' perceptions of ability.

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Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro theory of human motivation and personality that concerns people's innate growth tendencies and innate psychological needs. It pertains to the motivation behind people's choices in the absence of external influences and distractions. SDT focuses on the degree to which human behavior is self-motivated and self-determined.

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is one of the domains of self-regulation, and is aligned most closely with educational aims. Broadly speaking, it refers to learning that is guided by metacognition, strategic action, and motivation to learn. A self-regulated learner "monitors, directs, and regulates actions toward goals of information acquisition, expanding expertise, and self-improvement”. In particular, self-regulated learners are cognizant of their academic strengths and weaknesses, and they have a repertoire of strategies they appropriately apply to tackle the day-to-day challenges of academic tasks. These learners hold incremental beliefs about intelligence and attribute their successes or failures to factors within their control.

Social cognitive theory (SCT), used in psychology, education, and communication, holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. This theory was advanced by Albert Bandura as an extension of his social learning theory. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.

Mathematical anxiety, also known as math phobia, is a feeling of tension and anxiety that interferes with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in daily life and academic situations.

Tracking is separating students by what is assessed as academic ability into groups for all subjects or certain classes and curriculum within a school. Track assignment is typically based on academic ability, other factors often influence placement. It may be referred to as streaming or phasing in some schools. In a tracking system, the entire school population is assigned to classes according to whether the students' overall achievement is above average, normal, or below average. Students attend academic classes only with students whose overall academic achievement is the same as their own. Tracking generally applies to comprehensive schools, while selective school systems assign the students to different schools.

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E-learning theory describes the cognitive science principles of effective multimedia learning using electronic educational technology.

Goal orientation, or achievement orientation, is an "individual disposition towards developing or validating one's ability in achievement settings". In general, an individual can be said to be mastery or performance oriented, based on whether one's goal is to develop one's ability or to demonstrate one's ability, respectively. A mastery orientation is also sometimes referred to as a learning orientation.

Positive education is an approach to education that draws on positive psychology's emphasis of individual strengths and personal motivation to promote learning. Unlike traditional school approaches, positive schooling teachers use techniques that focus on the well-being of individual students. Teachers use methods such as developing tailored goals for each student to engender learning and working with them to develop the plans and motivation to reach their goals. Rather than pushing students to achieve at a set grade level, seen through the emphasis of standardized testing, this approach attempts to customize learning goals to individual students' levels. Instead of setting students to compete against one another, learning is viewed as a cooperative process where teachers learn to respect their students and each student's input is valued.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zoltán Dörnyei</span> Hungarian-born British linguist (1960–2022)

Zoltán Dörnyei was a Hungarian linguist. He was a professor of psycholinguistics at the University of Nottingham in the United Kingdom. He was known for his work on second language acquisition and the psychology of the language learner, in particular on motivation in second language learning, having published numerous books and papers on these topics.

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Jo Boaler is a British education author and Nomellini–Olivier Professor of mathematics education at the Stanford Graduate School of Education. Boaler is involved in promoting reform mathematics and equitable mathematics classrooms. She is the co-founder and faculty director of youcubed, a Stanford centre that offers mathematics education resources to teachers, students and parents. She is the author, co-author or editor of eighteen mathematics books, including Limitless Mind, Mathematical Mindsets, The Elephant in the Classroom, and What's Math Got To Do With It?.

In social and developmental psychology, an individual's implicit theory of intelligence refers to his or her fundamental underlying beliefs regarding whether or not intelligence or abilities can change, developed by Carol Dweck and colleagues.

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Coaching psychology is a field of applied psychology that applies psychological theories and concepts to the practice of coaching. Its aim is to increase performance, self-actualization, achievement and well-being in individuals, teams and organisations by utilising evidence-based methods grounded in scientific research. Coaching psychology is influenced by theories in various psychological fields, such as humanistic psychology, positive psychology, learning theory and social psychology.

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