Specific dynamic action

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Specific dynamic action (SDA), also known as thermic effect of food (TEF) or dietary induced thermogenesis (DIT), is the amount of energy expenditure above the basal metabolic rate due to the cost of processing food for use and storage. [1] Heat production by brown adipose tissue which is activated after consumption of a meal is an additional component of dietary induced thermogenesis. [2] The thermic effect of food is one of the components of metabolism along with resting metabolic rate and the exercise component. A commonly used estimate of the thermic effect of food is about 10% of one's caloric intake, though the effect varies substantially for different food components. For example, dietary fat is very easy to process and has very little thermic effect, while protein is hard to process and has a much larger thermic effect. [3]

Contents

Factors that affect the thermic effect of food

The thermic effect of food is increased by both aerobic training of sufficient duration and intensity or by anaerobic weight training. However, the increase is marginal, amounting to 7-8 calories per hour. [1] The primary determinants of daily TEF are the total caloric content of the meals and the macronutrient composition of the meals ingested. Meal frequency has little to no effect on TEF; assuming total calorie intake for the days are equivalent.

Although some believe that TEF is reduced in obesity, discrepant results and inconsistent research methods have failed to validate such claims. [4]

The mechanism of TEF is unknown. [5] : 505  TEF has been described as the energy used in the distribution of nutrients and metabolic processes in the liver, [6] but a hepatectomized animal shows no signs of TEF and intravenous injection of amino acids results in an effect equal to that of oral ingestion of the same amino acids. [5] : 505 

Types of foods

The thermic effect of food is the energy required for digestion, absorption, and disposal of ingested nutrients. Its magnitude depends on the composition of the food consumed:

Raw celery and grapefruit are often claimed to have negative caloric balance (requiring more energy to digest than recovered from the food), presumably because the thermic effect is greater than the caloric content due to the high fibre matrix that must be unraveled to access their carbohydrates. However, there has been no research carried out to test this hypothesis and a significant amount of the thermic effect depends on the insulin sensitivity of the individual, with more insulin-sensitive individuals having a significant effect while individuals with increasing resistance have negligible to zero effects. [9] [10]

The Functional Food Centre at Oxford Brookes University conducted a study into the effects of chilli peppers and medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) on Diet Induced Thermogenesis (DIT). They concluded that "adding chilli and MCT to meals increases DIT by over 50% which over time may accumulate to help induce weight loss and prevent weight gain or regain". [11]

Australia's Human Nutrition conducted a study on the effect of meal content in lean women's diets on the thermic effect of food and found that the inclusion of an ingredient containing increased soluble fibre and amylose did not reduce spontaneous food intake but rather was associated with higher subsequent energy intakes despite its reduced glycaemic and insulinemic effects. [12]

Measuring TEF

The thermic effect of food should be measured for a period of time greater than or equal to five hours. [13]

The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition published that TEF lasts beyond six hours for the majority of people. [13]

Related Research Articles

Dieting is the practice of eating food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight, or to prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes and obesity. As weight loss depends on calorie intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets, such as those emphasising particular macronutrients, have been shown to be no more effective than one another. As weight regain is common, diet success is best predicted by long-term adherence. Regardless, the outcome of a diet can vary widely depending on the individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abdominal obesity</span> Excess fat around the stomach and abdomen

Abdominal obesity, also known as central obesity and truncal obesity, is the human condition of an excessive concentration of visceral fat around the stomach and abdomen to such an extent that it is likely to harm its bearer's health. Abdominal obesity has been strongly linked to cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, and other metabolic and vascular diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leptin</span> Hormone that inhibits hunger

Leptin also obese protein is a protein hormone predominantly made by adipocytes. Its primary role is likely to regulate long-term energy balance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adipose tissue</span> Loose connective tissue composed mostly by adipocytes

Adipose tissue is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. It also contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and a variety of immune cells such as adipose tissue macrophages. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-carbohydrate diet</span> Diets restricting carbohydrate consumption

Low-carbohydrate diets restrict carbohydrate consumption relative to the average diet. Foods high in carbohydrates are limited, and replaced with foods containing a higher percentage of fat and protein, as well as low carbohydrate foods.

A low-protein diet is a diet in which people decrease their intake of protein. A low-protein diet is used as a therapy for inherited metabolic disorders, such as phenylketonuria and homocystinuria, and can also be used to treat kidney or liver disease. Low protein consumption appears to reduce the risk of bone breakage, presumably through changes in calcium homeostasis. Consequently, there is no uniform definition of what constitutes low-protein, because the amount and composition of protein for an individual with phenylketonuria would differ substantially from one with homocystinuria or tyrosinemia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weight gain</span> Increase in a persons total body mass

Weight gain is an increase in body weight. This can involve an increase in muscle mass, fat deposits, excess fluids such as water or other factors. Weight gain can be a symptom of a serious medical condition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High-protein diet</span> A diet high in protein

A high-protein diet is a diet in which 20% or more of the total daily calories come from protein. Many high protein diets are high in saturated fat and restrict intake of carbohydrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hyperinsulinemia</span> Abnormal increase in insulin in the bloodstream relative to glucose

Hyperinsulinemia is a condition in which there are excess levels of insulin circulating in the blood relative to the level of glucose. While it is often mistaken for diabetes or hyperglycaemia, hyperinsulinemia can result from a variety of metabolic diseases and conditions, as well as non-nutritive sugars in the diet. While hyperinsulinemia is often seen in people with early stage type 2 diabetes mellitus, it is not the cause of the condition and is only one symptom of the disease. Type 1 diabetes only occurs when pancreatic beta-cell function is impaired. Hyperinsulinemia can be seen in a variety of conditions including diabetes mellitus type 2, in neonates and in drug-induced hyperinsulinemia. It can also occur in congenital hyperinsulinism, including nesidioblastosis.

A negative-calorie food is food that supposedly requires more food energy to be digested than the food provides. Its thermic effect or specific dynamic action—the caloric "cost" of digesting the food—would be greater than its food energy content. Despite its recurring popularity in dieting guides, there is no evidence supporting the idea that any food is calorically negative. While some chilled beverages are calorically negative, the effect is minimal and requires drinking very large amounts of water, which can be dangerous, as it can cause water intoxication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Isomaltulose</span> Chemical compound

Isomaltulose is a disaccharide carbohydrate composed of glucose and fructose. It is naturally present in honey and sugarcane extracts and is also produced industrially from table sugar (sucrose) and used as a sugar alternative.

The Montignac diet is a high-protein low-carbohydrate fad diet that was popular in the 1990s, mainly in Europe. It was invented by Frenchman Michel Montignac (1944–2010), an international executive for the pharmaceutical industry, who, like his father, was overweight in his youth. His method is aimed at people wishing to lose weight efficiently and lastingly, reduce risks of heart failure, and prevent diabetes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sports nutrition</span> Study and practice of nutrition to improve performance

Sports nutrition is the study and practice of nutrition and diet with regards to improving anyone's athletic performance. Nutrition is an important part of many sports training regimens, being popular in strength sports and endurance sports. Sports nutrition focuses its studies on the type, as well as the quantity of fluids and food taken by an athlete. In addition, it deals with the consumption of nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, supplements and organic substances that include carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

A diabetic diet is a diet that is used by people with diabetes mellitus or high blood sugar to minimize symptoms and dangerous complications of long-term elevations in blood sugar.

The diet-induced obesity model is an animal model used to study obesity using animals that have obesity caused by being fed high-fat or high-density diets. It is intended to mimic the most common cause of obesity in humans. Typically mice, rats, dogs, or non-human primates are used in these models. These animals can then be used to study in vivo obesity, obesity's comorbidities, and other related diseases. Users of such models must take into account the duration and type of diet as well as the environmental conditions and age of the animals, as each may promote different bodyweights, fat percentages, or behaviors.

Intermittent fasting is any of various meal timing schedules that cycle between voluntary fasting and non-fasting over a given period. Methods of intermittent fasting include alternate-day fasting, periodic fasting, such as the 5:2 diet, and daily time-restricted eating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weight management</span> Techniques for maintaining body weight

Weight management refers to behaviors, techniques, and physiological processes that contribute to a person's ability to attain and maintain a healthy weight. Most weight management techniques encompass long-term lifestyle strategies that promote healthy eating and daily physical activity. Moreover, weight management involves developing meaningful ways to track weight over time and to identify the ideal body weights for different individuals.

Nutriepigenomics is the study of food nutrients and their effects on human health through epigenetic modifications. There is now considerable evidence that nutritional imbalances during gestation and lactation are linked to non-communicable diseases, such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, and cancer. If metabolic disturbances occur during critical time windows of development, the resulting epigenetic alterations can lead to permanent changes in tissue and organ structure or function and predispose individuals to disease.

Sleep is important in regulating metabolism. Mammalian sleep can be sub-divided into two distinct phases - REM and non-REM (NREM) sleep. In humans and cats, NREM sleep has four stages, where the third and fourth stages are considered slow-wave sleep (SWS). SWS is considered deep sleep, when metabolism is least active.

The Summermatter cycle is a physiological concept describing the complex relationship between physical activity/inactivity and energy expenditure/conservation.

References

  1. 1 2 Denzer, CM; JC Young (September 2003). "The effect of resistance exercise on the thermic effect of food". International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 13 (3): 396–402. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.13.3.396. PMID   14669938.
  2. ↑ Cannon, B.; Nedergaard, J. (2004). "Brown Adipose Tissue: Function and Physiological Significance". Physiological Reviews. 84 (1): 277–359. doi:10.1152/physrev.00015.2003. PMID   14715917.
  3. ↑ Christensen, Peter. "What is the thermic effect of food?". Retrieved March 28, 2005. Archived November 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  4. ↑ Granata, G. P.; Brandon, L. J. (2002). "The Thermic Effect of Food and Obesity: Discrepant Results and Methodological Variations". Nutrition Reviews. 60 (8): 223–233. doi: 10.1301/002966402320289359 . PMID   12199298.
  5. 1 2 Chaprapani U. and Satyanaryana. Biochemistry, 4th Ed. Elsevier India, 2013 ISBN   9788131236017
  6. ↑ Edward F. Goljan (2013). Rapid Review Pathology. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 174. ISBN   978-0-323-08787-2.
  7. 1 2 Glickman, N; Mitchell, HH (Jul 10, 1948). "The total specific dynamic action of high-protein and high-carbohydrate diets on human subjects" (PDF). The Journal of Nutrition. 36 (1): 41–57. doi:10.1093/jn/36.1.41. PMID   18868796.
  8. ↑ Halton, T. L.; Hu, F. B. (2004). "The effects of high protein diets on thermogenesis, satiety and weight loss: a critical review". J Am Coll Nutr. 23 (5): 373–85. doi:10.1080/07315724.2004.10719381. PMID   15466943. S2CID   28136289.
  9. ↑ Segal, K. R.; Albu, J.; Chun, A.; Edano, A.; Legaspi, B.; Pi-Sunyer, F. X. (1992). "Independent effects of obesity and insulin resistance on postprandial thermogenesis in men". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 89 (3): 824–833. doi:10.1172/JCI115661. PMC   442927 . PMID   1541675.
  10. ↑ Camastra, S.; Bonora, E.; Del Prato, S.; Rett, K.; Weck, M.; Ferrannini, E. (1999). "Effect of obesity and insulin resistance on resting and glucose-induced thermogenesis in man. EGIR (European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance)". International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. 23 (12): 1307–1313. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801072 . PMID   10643689.
  11. ↑ Clegg, M. E.; Golsorkhi, M.; Henry, C. J. (2012). "Combined medium-chain triglyceride and chilli feeding increases diet-induced thermogenesis in normal-weight humans". European Journal of Nutrition. 52 (6): 1579–1585. doi:10.1007/s00394-012-0463-9. PMID   23179202. S2CID   45846650.
  12. ↑ JKeogh, J. B.; Lau, C. W. H.; Noakes, M.; Bowen, J.; Clifton, P. M. (2006). "Effects of meals with high soluble fibre, high amylose barley variant on glucose, insulin, satiety and thermic effect of food in healthy lean women". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 61 (5): 597–604. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602564. PMID   17164830.
  13. 1 2 Reed, GW; Hill, JO (Feb 1996). "Measuring the thermic effect of food". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 63 (2): 164–9. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/63.2.164 . PMID   8561055.

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