Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity

The following is a timeline of gravitational physics and general relativity .

Before 1500

• 3rd century BC – Aristarchus of Samos proposes heliocentric model, measures the distance to the Moon and its size

1500s

• 1543 – Nicolaus Copernicus places the Sun at the gravitational center, starting a revolution in science
• 1583 – Galileo Galilei induces the period relationship of a pendulum from observations (according to later biographer).
• 1586 – Simon Stevin demonstrates that two objects of different mass accelerate at the same rate when dropped. ^[1]
• 1589 – Galileo describes a hydrostatic balance for measuring specific gravity.
• 1590 – Galileo formulates modified Aristotelean theory of motion (later retracted) based on density rather than weight of objects.

1600s

Geometric diagram for Newton's proof of Kepler's second law.

• 1602 – Galileo conducts experiments on pendulum motion.
• 1604 – Galileo conducts experiments with inclined planes and induces the law of falling objects.
• 1607 – Galileo derives a mathematical formulation of the law of falling objects based on his earlier experiments.
• 1608 – Galileo discovers the parabolic arc of projectiles through experiment.
• 1609 – Johannes Kepler his first two laws of planetary motion. ^[2]
• 1619 – Johannes Kepler publishes his third law of planetary motion. ^[2]
• 1665 – Isaac Newton introduces an inverse-square universal law of gravitation uniting terrestrial and celestial theories of motion and uses it to predict the orbit of the Moon and the parabolic arc of projectiles.
• 1684 – Newton proves that planets moving under an inverse-square force law will obey Kepler's laws in a letter to Edmond Halley.
• 1686 – Newton uses a fixed length pendulum with weights of varying composition to test the weak equivalence principle to 1 part in 1000. ^{[3] [4]}
• 1686 – Newton publishes his Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy , where he develops his calculus, states his laws of motion and gravitation, proves the shell theorem, explains the tides, and calculates the figure of the Earth. ^[3]

1700s

Lagrange points

• 1705 – Edmond Halley predicts the return of Halley's comet in 1758, ^[5] the first use of Newton's laws by someone other than Newton himself. ^[6]
• 1742 – Colin Maclaurin studies a self-gravitating uniform liquid drop at equilibrium, the Maclaurin spheroid. ^{[7] [8]}
• 1755 – Immanuel Kant advances Emanuel Swedenborg's nebular hypothesis on the origin of the Solar System. ^[9]
• 1765 – Leonhard Euler discovers the first three Lagrange points. ^{[10] [11]}
• 1767 – Leonhard Euler solves Euler's restricted three-body problem. ^[12]
• 1772 – Joseph-Louis Lagrange discovers the two remaining Lagrange points. ^[13]
• 1796 – Pierre-Simon de Laplace independently introduces the nebular hypothesis. ^[9]
• 1798 – Henry Cavendish tests Newton's law of universal gravitation using a torsion balance, leading to the first accurate value for the gravitational constant and the mean density of the Earth. ^{[14] [15]}

1800s

• 1846 – Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams, studying Uranus' orbit, independently prove that another, farther planet must exist. Neptune was found at the predicted moment and position.
• 1855 – Le Verrier observes a 35 arcsecond per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit and attributes it to another planet, inside Mercury's orbit. The planet was never found. See Vulcan.
• 1876 – William Kingdon Clifford suggests that the motion of matter may be due to changes in the geometry of space ^[16]
• 1882 – Simon Newcomb observes a 43 arcsecond per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit
• 1887 – Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley in their famous experiment do not detect the ether drift. ^{[17] [18]}
• 1889 – Loránd Eötvös uses a torsion balance to test the weak equivalence principle to 1 part in one billion. ^[19]
• 1893 – Ernst Mach states Mach's principle; first constructive attack on the idea of Newtonian absolute space
• 1898 – Henri Poincaré states that simultaneity is relative.
• 1899 – Hendrik Antoon Lorentz published the Lorentz transformations.

1900s

The U.S. Navy's nuclear-powered Task Force 1 underway for Operation Sea Orbit in the Mediterranean, 1964.

• 1902 – Paul Gerber explains the movement of the perihelion of Mercury using finite speed of gravity. ^[20] His formula, at least approximately, matches the later model from Einstein's general relativity, but Gerber's theory was incorrect.
• 1904 – Henri Poincaré presents the principle of relativity for electromagnetism
• 1905 – Albert Einstein completes his special theory of relativity ^[21] and discovers the equivalence of mass and energy, ^[22] ${\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}$ in modern form. ^{[23] [24]}
• 1907 – Albert Einstein introduces the principle of equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass and uses it to predict gravitational lensing and gravitational redshift, ^[25] historically known as the Einstein shift. ^[26]
• 1907-9 – Hermann Minkowski introduces the Minkowski spacetime. His paper was published posthumously. ^{[27] [28] [29]}
• 1909 – Max Born proposes his notion of rigidity. ^{[30] [31]}
• 1909 – Paul Ehrenfest states the Ehrenfest paradox. ^{[32] [33]}

1910s

Einstein's 1911 argument for gravitational redshift

• 1911 – Albert Einstein explains the need to replace both special relativity and Newton's theory of gravity; he realizes that the principle of equivalence only holds locally, not globally. ^[34]
• 1915-16 – Albert Einstein completes his general theory of relativity. ^[35] He explains the perihelion of Mercury and calculates gravitational lensing correctly and introduces the post-Newtonian approximation. ^{[36] [37]}
• 1915 – David Hilbert introduces Hilbert's action principle, ^[38] another way of deriving the Einstein field equations of general relativity. Hilbert also recognizes the connection between the Einstein equations and the Gauss-Bonnet theorem. ^[39]
• 1916 – Karl Schwarzschild publishes the Schwarzschild metric about a month after Einstein published his general theory of relativity. ^{[40] [41]} This was the first solution to the Einstein field equations other than the trivial flat space solution. ^{[42] [43]}
• 1916 – Albert Einstein predicts gravitational waves. ^[44]
• 1916 – Willem de Sitter predicts the geodetic effect. ^[45]
• 1917 – Albert Einstein applies his field equations to the entire Universe. ^[46] Physical cosmology is born.
• 1916-20 – Arthur Eddington studies the internal constitution of the stars. ^{[47] [48]}
• 1918 – Albert Einstein derives the quadrupole formula for gravitational radiation. ^{[49] [50]}
• 1918 – Josef Lense and Hans Thirring find the gravitomagnetic frame-dragging of gyroscopes in the equations of general relativity. ^{[51] [52] [53]}
• 1919 – Arthur Eddington leads a solar eclipse expedition which detects gravitational deflection of light by the Sun, ^[54] which, despite opinion to the contrary, survives modern scrutiny. ^[55] Other teams failed for reasons of war and politics. ^[56]

1920s

• 1921 – Theodor Kaluza demonstrates that a five-dimensional version of Einstein's equations unifies gravitation and electromagnetism ^[57]
• 1922 – Alexander Friedmann derives the Friedmann equations. ^[58]
• 1922 – Enrico Fermi introduces the Fermi coordinates. ^{[59] [60]}
• 1923 – George David Birkhoff proves Birkhoff's theorem on the uniqueness of the Schwarzschild solution.
• 1924 – Arthur Eddington calculates the Eddington limit. ^[61]
• 1925 – Walter Adams measures the gravitational redshift of the light emitted by the companion of Sirius B, a white dwarf. ^[62]
• 1927 – Georges Lemaître publishes his hypothesis of the primeval atom. ^[63]
• 1929 – Edwin Hubble published the law later named for him. ^[64]

1930s

The Einstein Cross, an example of gravitational lensing at work

• 1931 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar studies the stability of white dwarfs. ^{[65] [66]}
• 1931 – Georges Lemaître and Arthur Eddington predict the expansion of the Universe. ^{[67] [68]}
• 1931 – Albert Einstein introduces his cosmological constant. ^[69]
• 1932 – Albert Einstein and Willem de Sitter propose the Einstein-de Sitter cosmological model. ^[70]
• 1934 – Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky predict the existence of neutron stars. ^[71] Although their details are wrong, their basic idea is now accepted. ^[72]
• 1935 – Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen derive the Einstein-Rosen bridge, the first wormhole solution. ^[73]
• 1936 – Albert Einstein predicts that a gravitational lens brightens the light coming from a distant object to the observer. ^[74]
• 1937 – Fritz Zwicky states that galaxies could act as gravitational lenses. ^[75]
• 1937 – Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen obtain the Einstein-Rosen metric, the first exact solution describing gravitational waves. ^[76]
• 1938 – Albert Einstein, Leopold Infeld, and Banesh Hoffmann obtain the Einstein-Infeld-Hoffmann equations of motion. ^[77]
• 1939 – Hans Bethe shows that nuclear fusion is responsible for energy production inside stars, ^[78] building upon the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism.
• 1939 – Richard Tolman solves the Einstein field equations in the case of a spherical fluid drop. ^{[79] [80]}
• 1939 – Robert Serber, George Volkoff, Richard Tolman, and J. Robert Oppenheimer study the stability of neutron stars, obtaining the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit. ^{[81] [82] [80]}
• 1939 – J. Robert Oppenheimer and Hartland Snyder publish the Oppenheimer-Snyder model for the continued gravitational contraction of a star. ^{[83] [80] [84]}

1940s

• 1948 – Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman predict the cosmic microwave background. ^{[85] [86]}
• 1949 – Cornelius Lanczos introduces the Lanczos potential for the Weyl tensor. ^[87]
• 1949 – Kurt Gödel discovers Gödel's solution. ^[88]

1950s

• 1953 – P. C. Vaidya Newtonian time in general relativity, Nature, 171, p260.
• 1954 – Suraj Gupta sketches how to derive the equations of general relativity from quantum field theory for a massless spin-2 particle (the graviton). ^[89] His procedure was later carried out by Stanley Deser in 1970. ^{[90] [91]}
• 1955-56 – Robert Kraichnan shows that under the appropriate assumptions, Einstein's field equations of gravitation arise from the quantum field theory of a massless spin-2 particle coupled to the stress-energy tensor. ^{[92] [93]} This follows from his unpublished work as an undergraduate in 1947. ^[91]
• 1956 – Bruno Berlotti develops the post-Minkowskian expansion. ^[94]
• 1956 – John Lighton Synge publishes the first relativity text emphasizing spacetime diagrams and geometrical methods.
• 1957 – Felix A. E. Pirani uses Petrov classification to understand gravitational radiation.
• 1957 – Richard Feynman introduces his sticky bead argument. ^{[91] [95]} He later derives the quadrupole formula in a letter to Victor Weisskopf (1961). ^[91]
• 1957 – John Wheeler discusses the breakdown of classical general relativity near singularities and the need for quantum gravity.
• 1958 – David Finkelstein presents a new coordinate system that eliminates the Schwarzschild radius as a singularity. ^[96]
• 1959 – Robert Pound and Glen Rebka propose the Pound–Rebka experiment, first precision test of gravitational redshift. The experiment relies on the Mössbauer effect. ^[97]
• 1959 – Lluís Bel introduces Bel–Robinson tensor and the Bel decomposition of the Riemann tensor.
• 1959 – Arthur Komar introduces the Komar mass.
• 1959 – Richard Arnowitt, Stanley Deser and Charles W. Misner developed ADM formalism.

1960s

• 1960 – Martin Kruskal and George Szekeres independently introduce the Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates for the Schwarzschild vacuum. ^{[98] [99]}
• 1960 – John Graves and Dieter Brill study the causal structure of an electrically charged black hole. ^[100]
• 1960 – Thomas Matthews and Allan R. Sandage associate 3C 48 with a point-like optical image, show radio source can be at most 15 light minutes in diameter,
• 1960 – Ivor M. Robinson and Andrzej Trautman discover the Robinson-Trautman null dust solution ^[101]
• 1960 – Robert Pound and Glen Rebka test the gravitational redshift predicted by the equivalence principle to approximately 1%. ^[102]
• 1961 –Tullio Regge introduces the Regge calculus. ^[103]
• 1961 – Carl H. Brans and Robert H. Dicke introduce Brans–Dicke theory, the first viable alternative theory with a clear physical motivation. ^[104]
• 1961 – Pascual Jordan and Jürgen Ehlers develop the kinematic decomposition of a timelike congruence,
• 1961 – Robert Dicke, Peter Roll, and R. Krotkov refine the Eötvös experiment to an accuracy of 10⁻¹¹. ^{[105] [106]}
• 1962 – John Wheeler and Robert Fuller show that the Einstein-Rosen bridge is unstable. ^[107]
• 1962 – Roger Penrose and Ezra T. Newman introduce the Newman–Penrose formalism.
• 1962 – Ehlers and Wolfgang Kundt classify the symmetries of Pp-wave spacetimes.
• 1962 –Joshua Goldberg and Rainer K. Sachs prove the Goldberg–Sachs theorem. ^[108]
• 1962 – Ehlers introduces Ehlers transformations, a new solution generating method,
• 1962 – Richard Arnowitt, Stanley Deser, and Charles W. Misner introduce the ADM reformulation and global hyperbolicity,
• 1962 – Istvan Ozsvath and Englbert Schücking rediscover the circularly polarized monochromomatic gravitational wave,
• 1962 – Hans Adolph Buchdahl discovers Buchdahl's theorem,
• 1962 – Hermann Bondi introduces Bondi mass,
• 1962 – Hermann Bondi, M. G. van der Burg, A. W. Metzner, and Rainer K. Sachs introduce the asymptotic symmetry group of asymptotically flat, Lorentzian spacetimes at null (i.e., light-like) infinity.
• 1964 – Steven Weinberg shows that a quantum field theory of interacting massless spin-2 particles is Lorentz invariant only if it satisfies the principle of equivalence. ^{[109] [110] [91]}
• 1963 – Roy Kerr discovers the Kerr vacuum solution of Einstein's field equations, ^[111]
• 1963 – Redshifts of 3C 273 and other quasars show they are very distant; hence very luminous,
• 1963 – Newman, T. Unti and L.A. Tamburino introduce the NUT vacuum solution,
• 1963 – Roger Penrose introduces Penrose diagrams and Penrose limits. ^[112]
• 1963 – First Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics held in Dallas, 16–18 December.
• 1964 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar determines a stability criterion. ^[113]
• 1964 – R. W. Sharp and Misner introduce the Misner–Sharp mass.
• 1964 – Hong-Yee Chiu coins the term 'quasar' for quasi-stellar radio sources. ^[114]
• 1964 – Sjur Refsdal suggests that the Hubble constant could be determined using gravitational lensing. ^[115]
• 1964 – Irwin Shapiro predicts a gravitational time delay of radiation travel as a test of general relativity. ^{[116] [117]}
• 1965 – Roger Penrose proves first of the singularity theorems. ^[118]
• 1965 – Newman and others discover the Kerr–Newman electrovacuum solution,
• 1965 – Penrose discovers the structure of the light cones in gravitational plane wave spacetimes,
• 1965 – Ezra Newman and others introduce Kerr-Newman metric. ^{[119] [120]}
• 1965 – Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discover the cosmic microwave background radiation. ^[121]
• 1965 – Joseph Weber puts the first Weber bar gravitational wave detector into operation
• 1966 – Sachs and Ronald Kantowski discover the Kantowski-Sachs dust solution.
• 1967 – Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discover pulsars. ^[122]
• 1967 – Robert H. Boyer and R. W. Lindquist introduce Boyer–Lindquist coordinates for the Kerr vacuum.
• 1967 – Bryce DeWitt publishes on canonical quantum gravity. ^[123]
• 1967 – Werner Israel proves the no-hair theorem, ^[124] and the converse of Birkhoff's theorem. ^[125]
• 1967 – Kenneth Nordtvedt develops PPN formalism,
• 1967 – Mendel Sachs publishes factorization of Einstein's field equations,
• 1967 – Hans Stephani discovers the Stephani dust solution,
• 1968 – F. J. Ernst discovers the Ernst equation,
• 1968 – B. Kent Harrison discovers the Harrison transformation, a solution-generating method,
• 1968 – Brandon Carter solves the geodesic equations for Kerr–Newmann electrovacuum with Carter's constant. ^[126]
• 1968 – Hugo D. Wahlquist discovers the Wahlquist fluid,
• 1968 – Irwin Shapiro and his colleagues present the first detection of the Shapiro delay. ^[127]
• 1968 – Kenneth Nordtvedt studies a possible violation of the weak equivalence principle for self-gravitating bodies and proposes a new test of the weak equivalence principle based on observing the relative motion of the Earth and Moon in the Sun's gravitational field. ^[128]
• 1969 – William B. Bonnor introduces the Bonnor beam. ^[129]
• 1969 – Joseph Weber reports observation of gravitational waves ^[130] a claim now generally discounted. ^{[131] [132]}
• 1969 – Penrose proposes the (weak) cosmic censorship hypothesis and the Penrose process, ^[133]
• 1969 – Misner introduces the mixmaster universe.
• 1969 – Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat and Robert Geroch discuss global aspects of the Cauchy problem in general relativity. ^[134]
• 1965-70 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and colleagues develops the post-Newtonian expansions. ^{[135] [136] [137] [138] [139]}
• 1968-70 – Roger Penrose, Stephen Hawking, and George Ellis prove that singularities must arise in the Big Bang models. ^{[140] [141]}

1970s

Image of Cygnus X-1 by the Chandra X-ray Observatory (2009)

• 1970 – Vladimir A. Belinskiǐ, Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov, and Evgeny Lifshitz introduce the BKL conjecture.
• 1970 – Hawking and Penrose prove trapped surfaces must arise in black holes.
• 1970 – the Kinnersley-Walker photon rocket.
• 1970 – Peter Szekeres introduces colliding plane waves.
• 1971 – Alfred Goldhaber and Michael Nieto give stringent limits on the photon mass. ^[142] The strictest one is ${\displaystyle m_{\gamma }\leq 4\times 10^{-51}{\text{kg}}}$. ^[143]
• 1971 – Stephen W. Hawking proves the area theorem for black holes. ^[144]
• 1971 – Peter C. Aichelburg and Roman U. Sexl introduce the Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost.
• 1971 – Introduction of the Khan–Penrose vacuum, a simple explicit colliding plane wave spacetime.
• 1971 – Robert H. Gowdy introduces the Gowdy vacuum solutions (cosmological models containing circulating gravitational waves).
• 1971 – Cygnus X-1, the first solid black hole candidate, discovered by Uhuru satellite.
• 1971 – William H. Press discovers black hole ringing by numerical simulation.
• 1971 – Harrison and Estabrook algorithm for solving systems of PDEs.
• 1971 – James W. York introduces conformal method generating initial data for ADM initial value formulation.
• 1971 – Robert Geroch introduces Geroch group and a solution generating method.
• 1972 – Jacob Bekenstein proposes that black holes have a non-decreasing entropy which can be identified with the area. ^[145]
• 1972 – Sachs introduces optical scalars and proves peeling theorem.
• 1972 – Rainer Weiss proposes concept of interferometric gravitational wave detector in an unpublished manuscript. ^[146]
• 1972 – Joseph Hafele and Richard Keating perform the Hafele–Keating experiment. ^{[147] [148] [149]}
• 1972 – Richard H. Price studies gravitational collapse with numerical simulations.
• 1972 – Saul Teukolsky derives the Teukolsky equation. ^[150]
• 1972 – Yakov B. Zel'dovich predicts the transmutation of electromagnetic and gravitational radiation.
• 1972 – Brandon Carter, Stephen Hawking, and James M. Bardeen propose the four laws of black hole mechanics, ^[151]
• 1972 – James Bardeen calculates the shadow of a black hole. ^[152] This was later verified by the Event Horizon Telescope. ^[153]
• 1973 – Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne and John A. Wheeler publish the treatise Gravitation , a textbook that remains in use in the twenty-first century. ^{[154] [155]}
• 1973 – Stephen W. Hawking and George Ellis publish the monograph The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time .
• 1973 – Robert Geroch introduces the GHP formalism,
• 1973 – Homer Ellis obtains the Ellis drainhole, ^[156] the first traversable wormhole.
• 1974 – Russell Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar,
• 1974 – James W. York and Niall Ó Murchadha present the analysis of the initial value formulation and examine the stability of its solutions,
• 1974 – R. O. Hansen introduces Hansen–Geroch multipole moments,
• 1974 – Stephen Hawking discovers Hawking radiation. ^{[157] [158]}
• 1974 – Stephen Hawking shows that the area of a black hole is proportional to its entropy, as previously conjectured by Jacob Bekenstein. ^[159]
• 1975 – Roberto Colella, Albert Overhauser, and Samuel Werner observe the quantum-mechanical phase shift of neutrons due to gravity. ^[160] Neutron interferometry was later used to test the principle of equivalence. ^{[161] [162] [163]}
• 1975 – Chandrasekhar and Steven Detweiler compute quasinormal modes.
• 1975 – Szekeres and D. A. Szafron discover the Szekeres–Szafron dust solutions.
• 1976 – Penrose introduces Penrose limits (every null geodesic in a Lorentzian spacetime behaves like a plane wave),
• 1978 – Penrose introduces the notion of a thunderbolt,
• 1978 – Belinskiǐ and Zakharov show how to solve Einstein's field equations using the inverse scattering transform; the first gravitational solitons,
• 1979 – Dennis Walsh, Robert Carswell, and Ray Weymann discover the gravitationally lensed quasar Q0957+561. ^[164]
• 1979 – Jean-Pierre Luminet creates an image of a black hole with an accretion disk using computer simulation. ^{[165] [166]}
• 1979-81 – Richard Schoen and Shing-Tung Yau prove the positive mass theorem. ^{[167] [168]} Edward Witten independently proves the same thing. ^[169]

1980s

• 1980 – Vera Rubin and colleagues study the rotational properties of UGC 2885, demonstrating the prevalence of dark matter. ^{[170] [171]}
• 1980 – Gravity Probe A verifies gravitational redshift to approximately 0.007% using a space-born hydrogen maser. ^[172]
• 1980 – James Bardeen explains structure in the Universe using cosmological perturbation theory. ^[173]
• 1981 – Alan Guth proposes cosmic inflation in order to solve the flatness and horizon problems. ^[174]
• 1982 – Joseph Taylor and Joel Weisberg show that the rate of energy loss from the binary pulsar PSR B1913+16 agrees with that predicted by the general relativistic quadrupole formula to within 5%.
• 1986 – Helmut Friedrich proves that the de Sitter spacetime is stable. ^{[175] [176]}
• 1986 – Bernard Schutz shows that cosmic distances can be determined using sources of gravitational waves without references to the cosmic distance ladder. ^[177] Standard-siren astronomy is born.
• 1988 – Mike Morris, Kip Thorne, and Yurtsever Ulvi obtain the Morris-Thorne wormhole. ^[178] Morris and Thorne argue for its pedagogical value. ^[179]
• 1989 – Steven Weinberg discusses the cosmological constant problem, the discrepancy between the measured value and those predicted by modern theories of elementary particles. ^[180]

1990s

Parameter space of various approximation techniques in general relativity

• 1992 – Stephen Hawking states his chronology protection conjecture. ^[181]
• 1993 – Demetrios Christodoulou and Sergiu Klainerman prove the non-linear stability of the Minkowski spacetime. ^{[182] [176]}
• 1995 – John F. Donoghue show that general relativity is a quantum effective field theory. ^[183] This framework could be used to analyze binary systems observed by gravitational-wave observatories. ^[184]
• 1995 – Hubble Deep Field image taken, ^[185] It is a landmark in the study of cosmology.
• 1998 – The first complete Einstein ring, B1938+666, discovered using the Hubble Space Telescope and MERLIN. ^{[186] [187]}
• 1996-98 – RELIKT-1 and COBE identify anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background. ^{[188] [189]}
• 1998-99 – Scientists discover that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating. ^{[190] [191]}
• 1999 – Alessandra Buonanno and Thibault Damour introduce the effective one-body formalism. ^[192] This was later used to analyze data collected by gravitational-wave observatories. ^[193]

2000s

• 2003 – Arvind Borde, Alan Guth, and Alexander Vilenkin prove the Borde–Guth–Vilenkin theorem. ^{[194] [195]}
• 2002 – First data collection of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).
• 2002 – James Williams, Slava Turyshev, and Dale Boggs conduct stringent lunar test of violations of the principle of equivalence. ^[196]
• 2005 – Daniel Holz and Scott Hughes coin the term "standard sirens". ^[197]
• 2009 – Gravity Probe B experiment verifies the geodetic effect to 0.5%. ^{[198] [199]}

2010s

Improving cosmological measurements by three different satellites

• 2011 – Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) finds no statistically significant deviations from the ΛCDM model of cosmology. ^[200]
• 2012 – Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image released. It was created using data collected by the Hubble Space Telescope between 2003-2004. ^[201]
• 2013 – NuSTAR and XMM-Newton measure the spin of the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy NGC 1365. ^[202]
• 2015 – Advanced LIGO reports the first direct detections of gravitational waves, GW150914 ^[203] and GW151226, ^[204] mergers of stellar-mass black holes. Gravitational-wave astronomy is born. ^[205] No deviations from general relativity were found. ^{[206] [207]}
• 2017 – LIGO-VIRGO collaboration detects gravitational waves emitted by a neutron-star binary, GW170817. ^[208] The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and the International Gamma-ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) unambiguously detect the corresponding gamma-ray burst. ^{[209] [210]} LIGO-VIRGO and Fermi constrain the difference between the speed of gravity and the speed of light in vacuum to 10⁻¹⁵. ^[211] This marks the first time electromagnetic and gravitational waves are detected from a single source, ^{[212] [213]} and give direct evidence that some (short) gamma-ray bursts are due to colliding neutron stars. ^{[208] [209]}
• 2017 – Multi-messenger astronomy reveals neutron-star mergers to be responsible for the nucleosynthesis of some heavy elements, ^{[214] [215] [216] [217]} such as strontium, ^[218] via the rapid-neutron capture or r-process. ^[219]
• 2017 – MICROSCOPE satellite experiment verifies the principle of equivalence to 10⁻¹⁵ in terms of the Eötvös ratio ${\displaystyle \eta }$. ^[220] The final report is published in 2022. ^{[221] [222]}
• 2017 – Principle of equivalence tested to 10^-9 for atoms in a coherent state of superposition. ^[223]
• 2017 – Scientists begin using gravitational-wave sources as "standard sirens" to measure the Hubble constant, finding its value to be broadly in line with the best estimates of the time. ^{[224] [225]} Refinements of this technique will help resolve discrepancies between the different methods of measurements. ^[226]
• 2017 – Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) arrives on the International Space Station. ^[122]
• 2017-18 – Georgios Moschidis proves the instability of the anti-de Sitter spacetime. ^[176]
• 2018 – Final paper by the Planck satellite collaboration. ^[227] Planck operated between 2009 and 2013.
• 2018 – Mihalis Dafermos and Jonathan Luk disprove the strong cosmic censorship hypothesis for the Cauchy horizon of a uncharged, rotating black hole. ^[228]
• 2018 – Advanced LIGO-VIRGO collaboration constrains equations of state for a neutron star using GW170817. ^{[229] [230]}
• 2018 – Luciano Rezzolla, Elias R. Most, and Lukas R. Weih used gravitational-wave data from GW170817 constrain the possible maximum mass for a neutron star to around 2.17 solar masses. ^[231]
• 2018 – Kris Pardo, Maya Fishbach, Daniel Holz, and David Spergel limit the number of spacetime dimensions through which gravitational waves can propagate to 3 + 1, in line with general relativity and ruling out models that allow for "leakage" to higher dimensions of space. ^{[232] [233]} Analyses of GW170817 have also ruled out many other alternatives to general relativity, ^{[234] [235] [236] [237]} and proposals for dark energy. ^{[238] [239] [240] [241] [242]}
• 2018 – Two different experimental teams report highly precise values of Newton's gravitational constant ${\displaystyle G}$ that slightly disagree. ^{[243] [244] [245]}
• 2019 – Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) releases an image of supermassive black hole M87*, and measures its mass and shadow. ^{[246] [247]}
• 2019 – Advanced LIGO and VIRGO detect GW190814, the collision of a 26-solar-mass black hole and a 2.6-solar-mass object, either an extremely heavy neutron star or a very light black hole. ^{[248] [249]} This is the largest mass gap seen in a gravitational-wave source to-date.

2020s

The size of Sagittarius A* is smaller than the orbit of Mercury.

• 2020 – Principle of equivalence tested for individual atoms using atomic interferometry to ~10^-12. ^{[250] [251]}
• 2021 – Jun Ye and his team measure gravitational redshift with an accuracy of 7.6 × 10⁻²¹ using an ultracold cloud of 100,000 strontium atoms in an optical lattice. ^{[252] [253]}
• 2021 – EHT measures the polarization of the ring of M87*, ^[254] and other properties of the magnetic field in its vicinity. ^[255]
• 2021 – EHT releases an image of Sagittarius A*, the central supermassive black hole of the Milky Way, ^{[256] [257]} measures its shadow, ^[258] and shows that it is accurately described by the Kerr metric. ^[259]
• 2022 – Chris Overstreet and his team observe the gravitational Aharonov-Bohm effect ^{[260] [261] [262]} using an experimental design from 2012. ^{[263] [264]}
• 2022 – James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) publishes its first image, a deep-field photograph of the SMACS 0723 galaxy cluster. ^[265]
• 2022 – Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory detects GRB 221009A, the brightest gamma-ray burst recorded. ^{[266] [267] [268]}
• 2022 – JWST identifies several candidate high-redshift objects, corresponding to just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang. ^{[269] [270]}
• 2023 – James Nightingale and colleagues detect Abell 1201, an ultramassive black hole (33 billion solar masses), using strong gravitational lensing. ^[271]
• 2023 – Matteo Bachetti and colleagues confirm that neutron star M82 X-2 is violating the Eddington limit, making it an ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX). ^{[272] [273]}
• 2023 – Team led by Dong Sheng and Zheng-Tian Lu found a null result for the coupling between quantum spin and gravity to 10⁻⁹. ^{[274] [275]}
• 2023 – The North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves (NANOGrav), the European Pulsar Timing Array (EPTA), the Parkes Pulsar Timing Array (Australia), and the Chinese Pulsar Timing Array report detection of a gravitational-wave background. ^{[276] [277] [278] [279] [280]}
• 2023 – Geraint F. Lewis and Brendon Brewer present evidence of cosmological time dilation in quasars. ^{[281] [282]}

See also

• Astronomy portal
• Mathematics portal
• History of Science portal
• Physics portal

• Timeline of black hole physics
• Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light
• List of contributors to general relativity

References

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