Avestan geography

Avestan geography refers to the investigation of place names in the Avesta and the attempt to connect them to real-world geographical sites. ^{[1] [2]} It is connected to but different from the cosmogony expressed in the Avesta, where place names primarily refer to mythical events or a cosmological order. ^[3]

Identifying such connections is important for localizing the people of the Avesta and is therefore crucial for understanding the early history of Zoroastrianism and the Iranians. ^{[4] [5] [6]} Sources for such geographical references are exclusively found in the younger Avestan portion of the text, in particular in the Vendidad and several of the Yashts. The identification of these Avestan place names with real locations is often supported by comparisons with references made in later Iranian sources. ^[7]

A major challenge to establish these connections is the fact that the Iranian people often used the same name for different places. As a result, not all Avestan place names can be identified with certainty with present-day locations and therefore remain subject to debate. Modern scholarship, however, agrees that the place names in the Avesta are concentrated in the eastern regions of Greater Iran up to the Indo-Iranian border. ^[1]

Vendidad references

Approximate localization of the regions in the Vendidad. Differences in the scholary opinions are indicated by color.

The main Avestan text of geographical interest is the first chapter of the Vendidad (Avestan : vi.daēwa.dāta, 'The Law repudiating the Deavas'). It consists of a list of the sixteen good lands (asah) and countries (šōiθra) created by Ahura Mazda. Each country is introduced with a verse describing its Ohrmazdian characteristic, followed by one describing the corresponding counter-creation (paityāra) by Angra Mainyu. The only exceptions are the first and eleventh country on the list where two verses explain its Ahrimanic counter-creation:

The first of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Airyanem Vaejah, by the good river Daitya.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the serpent in the river and winter, a work of the Deavas.

There are ten winter months there, two summer months; and those are cold for the waters, cold for the earth, cold for the trees.
Winter falls there, with the worst of all plagues.

The second of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Gava, inhabited by the Sogdians.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the locust, which brings death unto cattle and plants.

...

The sixteenth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the land by the floods of the Rangha, where people live who have no chiefs.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created winter, a work of the Daevas.

— Vendidad 1.2 - 1.4, 1.19 (translated by James Darmesteter). ^[8]

Early Pahlavi sources have traditionally located many of these countries in the western Iranian regions; a tendency that was followed by much of 20th century scholarship. ^[9] This changed with the work of Gherardo Gnoli who argued that all place names in the Vendidad are located in the eastern part of Greater Iran, i.e. centered around modern day Afghanistan and Tajikistan. ^[10] Since then, a number of revisions of Gnoli's work have been proposed, often attempting to derive the position of the more uncertain place names from an assumed arrangement according to which countries appear in the list. ^{[11] [12] [13]} The following list presents these place names and discusses the different localization attempts made by scholars throughout the years:

1. Airyanem Vaejah, by the good river Daitya (airiianəm vaẽjō vahuii dåitiiaii): The identity of both Airyanem Vaejah and the river Daitya are not universally agreed upon. Iranian sources have traditionally located Aryanem Vaejah in around Azerbaijan, a hypothesis that was shared, e.g., by James Darmesteter. ^[14] In contrast, historians such as Walter Bruno Henning, ^[15] Josef Markwart, ^[16] and Mary Boyce believe its location to be in Chorasmia or northeast Iran around the Aral Sea and the Oxus River. Yet according to Michael Witzel, Airyanem Vaejah should be located at the center of the sixteen lands, ^[17] specifically in what are now the central Afghan highlands (around modern Bamyan Province). ^[18] One of arguments in favor of locating Airyanem Vaejah in central Afghanistan is that a mountainous region explains its severe climate (Vd. 1.2.3) better than does its supposed location in Chorasmia. ^[19] According to Gnoli, ^[20] it was situated between the Helmand River and the Hindu Kush Mountains, while historians like Skjaervo have declared the localization of Airyanem Vaejah to be insolveable. ^[21]
2. Gava, inhabited by the Sogdians (gāum yim suγδō.šaiianəm): The toponym Gava appears twice in the Avesta. Each time it is connected with the Sogdians and it is consequently identified with the region of Sogdia. ^[22] While the place name Gava remains elusive, Vogelsang connects it with Gabae, a Sogdian stronghold in western Sogdia and speculates that during the time of the Avesta, the center of Sogdia may have been closer to Bukhara instead of Samarkand. ^[23]
3. Mouru the just (mōurum sūrəm): This toponym is universally identified with Margiana, a historical region located in the eastern portion of Turkmenistan. ^[24]
4. Bahdi the beautiful with uplifted banners (båxδīm srīrąm ərəδβō.drafšąm): Likewise, Bahdi is universally identified with Bactria, a historical region around the city of Balkh located in today's Tajikistan and the northern portion of Afghanistan. ^[22]
5. Nisai between Mouru and Bahdi (nisåim yim antarə mōurum-ca båxδīm-ca): The Vendidad states that Nisai is located between Margiana and Bactria, which would place it somewhere near to today's Faryab Province. However, some historians have also proposed a more western location centered around Nisa in modern day southern Turkmenistan ^[25] or Neyshabur in north-eastern Iran. ^[26]
6. Haroiva with vis harezanem (harōiiūm yim viš.harəzanəm): The meaning of 'vis harezanem' is unclear, yet the name Haroiva continues in the modern city of Herat as well as the name of Aria, the satrapy that was centered around this city. The name Haroiva also appears as Sarayu, a Vedic river in India.
7. Vakereta, inhabited by the Duzhaka (vaẽkərətəm yim dužakō.šaiianəm): Early Pahlavi sources identify this country with the Kabul region. Modern scholarship mostly identifies Vakereta with the nearby region of Gandhara. ^{[27] [28] [29]} Diverting from this widely-shared localization, Witzel places it close to Gorgan. ^[30]
8. Urva rich in pastures (uruuąm pouru.våstrąm): The exact location of Urva is unknown. Gnoli proposed Ghazni, ^[31] while Darmesteter believed it to be Urgench in modern day Uzbekistan. ^[32]
9. Khnenta, inhabited by the Vehrkana (xnəntẽm yim vəhrkånō.šaiianəm): This place name is not found in any historical sources, but the Vehrkana are often connected with the Hyrcanians and Khnenta is, therefore, identified with Hyrcania. ^{[33] [34]} However, Gnoli connects the name with the Barkanioi, a tribe mentioned by Ctesias and places Khnenta north of the Hindukush. ^[35] On the other hand, Grenet connects the name Vehrkana with the town Urgun south of the Hindukush. ^[36]
10. Harakhvaiti the beautiful (haraxᵛaitīm srīrąm): This name appears during the Achaemenid Empire as Harauvatish and was known to the Greeks as Arachosia, a historical region centered around the valley of the Arghandab River in modern-day southern Afghanistan. The name also appears as Sarasvati, a Vedic river in India. ^[37] It has been noted that the name of Harakhvaiti found in the Avesta differs from a reconstructed correct Avestan form *haranᵛhaitīm and therefore may reflect a local dialect. ^[38]
11. Haetumant possessing the Khvarenah (haētumantəm raẽuuantəm xᵛarənanhantəm): Haetumant is the region of Helmand River, which derives its name from it and roughly corresponds to the Achaemenian region of Drangiana, which later became known as Sistan under the Sassanians. ^[39]
12. Ragha of the three tribes (raγąm θrizantūm): Classic Pahlavi commentary identified Ragha with Median Ragā (modern day Rey in Tehran province) and therefore placed it in western Iran. Following Gnoli, however, modern localization attempts often place it in Afghanistan, ^{[10] [40] [4]} whereas others still support its traditional localization in western Iran. ^[34]
13. Chakhra the strong, supporting the religious order (caxrəm sūrəm asauuanəm): The location of Chakhra is still uncertain, but Darmesteter believes the location is Čarx between Ghaznī and Kabul, in the valley of Lōgar, ^[41] whereas Grenet identifies Chakhra with the Chitral valley. ^[42]
14. Varena with four corners (varənəm yim caθru.gaošəm): According to Pahlavi tradition, Varena is located in mountainous Gilan, the birthplace of Zahhak, who was killed by Thraetaona. This localization was accepted by a number of historians. ^[43] According to Gnoli, however, Varena is identified with modern Buner between the Indus River and the Swat District. ^[10] Yet, according to Witzel, Varena lies south of Kabul. ^[34]
15. Hapta Hendu (hapta həndu, Vsn. Sapta Sindhava, 'seven rivers'): Beginning with Pahlavi tradition, Hapta Hendu has been interpreted as referring to Punjab plus the Kabul River and the Indus River, a tradition that is shared by the vast majority of modern scholars. ^{[44] [45]}
16. The land by the floods of the Rangha, where people live who have no chiefs (upa aodaẽšu rahaii yōi asårō aiβiiåxšaiieinti): Like the first country on the list, Airyanem Vaejah, the last country Rangha is also afflicted by the same evil plague; the Deava-created winter. This makes a location in the north or the mountains plausible. ^[46] The name Rangha is widely interpreted as the Avestan counterpart of the Rasā, a semi-mystical river known from Vedic geography. ^[47] Like Airyanem Vaejah, the place name Rangha and its associated river are, therefore, sometimes interpreted to be both a mythological and a geographical location. ^[48]

In summary, there is a broad consensus regarding about half of the lands on this list, while Vakereta, Urva, Khnenta, Ragha, Chakhra and Varena are disputed to varying degrees. ^[49] Airyanem Vaejah and Rangha, however, remain the most debated items. This is because these two place names may not only be geographical locations, but can also be interpreted as part of Iranian cosmology. ^[50] This is due to the elusive description of both countries, the fact that they start and end the list, ^[51] the fact that they are both characterized by the same Deava-created winter, and the fact that they are both connected with a mythical river. ^{[52] [53]} As regards Airyanem Vaejah, it has been interpreted as "the traditional homeland" or "the ancient homeland" of the Iranians. These definitions perpetuate interpretations of the Airyanem Vaejah as Urheimat des Awestavolkes, Urland of the Indo-Iranians ^[54] or the Wiege aller iranischen Arier. ^[55]

Yasht references

While the first chapter of the Vendidad contains the longest and most elaborate geographical description in the Avesta, several of the Yashts (Avestan : yašt, 'prayer, honor') contain additional information. Of particular interest here are the Mihr Yasht, the Farvardin Yasht, and the Zamyad Yasht, in which a number of passages mention geographically relevant features such as mountains, regions, peoples, and rivers in various contexts.

Mihr Yasht

Approximate location of the place names mentioned in the Mihr Yasht of the Avesta

The Mihr Yasht is the second longest of the Yashts and is dedicated to the Zoroastrian deity Mithra (Avestan : miθra, 'covenant'). In it, a second list of Iranian countries is presented, albeit being shorter than the one in the Vendidad. The list is found in verses Yt. 10.12-10.14, where the text describes how Mithra reaches Mount Hara and looks at the entirety of the Iranian lands (airiio.shaiianem):

Grass-land magnate Mithra we worship ...;

who is the first supernatural god to approach across the Hara,
in front of the immortal swift-horsed sun;
who is the first to seize the beautiful gold-painted mountain tops;
from there the most mighty surveys the whole land inahbitated by the Iranians;

where gallant rulers organize many attacks,
where high, sheltering mountains with ample pasture provide solicitous for cattle;
where deep lakes stand with surging waves;
where navigable rivers rush with wide a swell
towards Parutian Ishkata, Haraivian Margu, Sogdian Gava, and Chorasmia.

— Mihr Yasht 10.12–14 (translated by Ilya Gershovitch). ^[56]

The middle items on this list, namely Haraivian Margu, and Sogdian Gava, are also found in the list of the Vendidad, whereas Chorasmia (xᵛāirizəm, 'nourishing land') is a historical region south of the Aral lake. This leaves Ishkata (iškatā) and Pouruta (pourutā) to be identified. The place name Ishkata is mentioned several times in the Avesta. ^[57] While in Yt. 193 and Yt. 10.11, Ishkata refers to a mountain in the Hindu Kush, the term in Yt. 11.14 has been interpreted as referring to the land dominated by this mountain. Ilya Gershevitch has, for instance, argued that it should be located in the upper Helmand plain close to the Koh-i-Baba. ^[58] Pouruta on the other hand has been connected to the Parautoi mentioned by Ptolemy; a tribe that lived close to the Hindu Kush in the Ghor (gairi, "mountain") region. ^[59]

Compared with the list in the Vendidad, a substantial overlap is visible. Overall, however, the area described is smaller. If Airyanem Vaejah can be located in Khwarazm, then the northern border of the two lists would coincide. Regardless, the area described in the Vendidad extends further east, south and, depending on the identification of some place names, west. The causes for this difference are not known but it may reflect Iranian/Zoroastrian movements over time. ^[60]

Fravardin Yasht

Approximate location of the peoples mentioned in the Fravardin Yasht, namely the Iranians (as described in the Mihr Yasht), Turanians, Sairima and Daha.

The Fravardin Yasht is the longest of the Yashts and is dedicated to the veneration of the Fravashi, a unique Zoroastrian concept similar to and connected with the concept of the soul (urvan). In Yt. 13.143-44, the Fravashi of the righteous living in the lands of five different peoples are praised:

We worship the Fravashis of the holy men in the Aryan countries;
We worship the Fravashis of the holy women in the Aryan countries.
We worship the Fravashis of the holy men in the Turanian countries;
We worship the Fravashis of the holy women in the Turanian countries.
We worship the Fravashis of the holy men in the Sairimyan countries;
We worship the Fravashis of the holy women in the Sairimyan countries.

We worship the Fravashis of the holy men in the Saini countries;
We worship the Fravashis of the holy women in the Saini countries.
We worship the Fravashis of the holy men in the Dahi countries;
We worship the Fravashis of the holy women in the Dahi countries.
We worship the Fravashis of the holy men in all countries;
We worship the Fravashis of the holy women in all countries.

— Fravardin Yasht 13.143-44 (translated by James Darmesteter). ^[61]

The Arya (airiia, 'Iranians') are the main ethnic group mentioned in the Avesta, where they are typically equated with the Zoroastrian community in general. This ethnic epithet appears both in the Avesta as well as in early Iranian history as the self designation of the Iranian people. ^{[62] [63]} This interpretation is, however, context specific, since all people mentioned in the Avesta appear to be speakers of Iranian languages and would therefore be Iranian in a linguistic sense. ^[64] Moreover, the term Arya (Sanskrit : ārya) also appears in ancient India as the self-designation of the people of the Vedas. The Arya of the Vedas show many similarities with the Arya of the Avesta and must have formed a single people at one point. ^[65] Their relationship at the time of the Avesta is, however, unknown.

The Turya (tūiriia, 'Turanians') are the second major ethnic group mentioned in the Avesta. They are commonly known as the Turanians from later Pahlavi sources as well as Iranian legend. While some Turanians in the Fravardin Yasht are depicted as faithful followers of Ahura Mazda, most passages in the Avesta as well as later Iranian tradition depicts them in a consistently antagonistic role. Their homeland is typically located in Transoxiania. After Turkic peoples began to spread in Central Asia, the term Turanian was increasingly applied to them. ^[66] Regardless, the Turanians at the time of the Avesta were Iranian.

The Sarima are mentioned only in the Fravardin Yasht and do not appear in other parts of the Avesta. Their name, however, is found in later traditions involving the mythological ancestors of the Arya, the Turya and the Sarima. In these traditions, a figure known as Sarm, in Pahlavi texts, and Salm, in the Shahname, is given the western part of the known world to rule over. ^[67] In addition, their name has been connected to the later Sarmatians based on etymological grounds. ^[68] The Sarmatians were an Iranian speaking tribe that came into contact with the Greeks in the western steppe during classical antiquity but their origins are assumed to be in the southern Ural region.

The Saini are the forth group of people mentioned in the Fravardin Yasht. They do not appear in other parts of the Avesta or in later Iranian tradition. Nor are any later groups known from historical sources to be associated with them. As a result, their identity remains unclear.

The Daha are the last people being mentioned in the Fravardin Yasht. They appear as the Dahae in later historical sources. ^[69] The Dahae were an Iranian speaking tribe which in antiquity lived modern day Turkmenistan. In addition to the Dahae, the name of the Daha appears as the Dasa in the Vedas, where they are described as non-Aryan adversaries of the Vedic Aryans. It is not known whether these etymological connections support an ethnic connections as well. ^[70]

Taken together, the available evidence points to these other peoples being Iranian tribes living in the steppes north of the Aryas. ^[71] A memory of this kinship between them may be found in the Iranian epic Shahnameh, where the legendary Iranian hero Thraetaona has three sons, Iraj (Aryan), Tur (Turanian) and Salm (Sairima). It is therefore plausible that the Turanians, Sairima, Dahi, and possibly the Saini were part of or associated with the broader phenomenon of Scythian cultures. ^[72]

Zamyad Yasht

Area of the Sistan Basin

The Zamyad Yasht is named after Zam, the Zoroastrian divinity that personifies the Earth. The extant version of the Zamyad Yasht consists of two parts. The first part is a fragment of eight sections (Yt. 19.1-8) containing a list of 40 mountains. Despite its geographical character, the list is interpreted to represent mythology rather than geography. ^[73] The second, much longer part is the Kayan Yasn, dedicated to the Khvarenah (Avestan : xᵛarənah, 'glory') of the Kayanian dynasty. This glory is first bestowed by Ahura Mazda upon the Pishdadian dynasty, the mythical predecessors of the Kayanian dynasty. Yet after the downfall of Yima, they lose the glory which then becomes unseized or unappropriated (axᵛarəta). In search of a legitimate holder, the glory finally reaches the Kansayoya sea. At this point, the Yasht provides a detailed description of the hydrography of the Sistan Basin, in particular of Hāmūn-e Helmand:

(the Unappropriated Glory) which is coming over
to Saoshyant Verethrajan
who will rise from the area
where the Kansayoya sea is situated by the (River) Haetumant
and Mount Ushada
around which the many watercourses meet, coming from the mountains.

Towards (Mount Ushada) the (River) Khvastra flows to meet (the others),
towards it the Khvastra hurries to meet (the others),
and (so do) the Huvaspa and the Fradata,
the beautiful Khvarenanguhaiti,
the strong Ushtavaiti,
the Urva rich in pastures,
the Erezi, and the Zurenumaiti;
towards (Mount Ushada) the Haetumant flows to meet (the others),
towards it the Haetumant hurries (to meet the others),
being splendid and glorious,
parading with its white surges and sending down many floods.

— Zamyad Yasht 19.66–77 (translated by Helmut Humbach). ^[74]

Apart from the Helmand River, these verses contain the names of eight other rivers flowing into lake Hamun; namely the Khvastra (xᵛāstrā, 'good pasture'), the Huvaspa (hvaspā, 'good horse'), the Fradata (fradaθā, 'wealthy'), the Khvarenanguhaiti (xᵛarənahvaitī), the Ushtavaiti (uštavaitī), the Urva (urvaδā, 'liquid'), the Erezi (Ǝrəzī), and the Zurenumaiti (zurənumaitī). None of these names relate directly to known Sistani rivers but a number of studies have tried to establish such connections. ^{[75] [76] [77] [78]} These attempts rely on parallels in Pahlavi literature like the Bundahishn and the Tarikh-i Sistan, where a number of Sistani rivers are mentioned. Further features of Sistani geography recur in the same verses, like the Kansayoya sea or Mount Ushada, both of which are closely connected to Zoroastrian eschatology. Together with the description in the Vendidad, these passages make Sistan the best described region in the Avesta. ^[79]

Conclusion

Overview over the geographical horizon of the Young Avestan period

A comparison of the first chapter of the Vendidad with the passages of geographical interest in the great Yashts shows that the geographical area of interest for the people of the Avesta was centered around the Hindu Kush range. To the north, it included Sogdiana, Bactria, Aria, Margiana and Chorasmia; an area later known as Greater Khorasan under the Sassanians. To the south, it included Arachosia, Drangiana, Gandara and the upper Punjab up to the Indus River; an area known as Ariana, the land of the Arya, to the Greeks. This strong focus on Eastern Iran has also implication for the time of composition of the text. Starting with the rise of the Achaemenid Empire, the political focus of the Iranian world shifted decidedly to the West. The near-total absence of western Iranians place names, with the possible exception of Rey and Hyrcania, makes it unlikely that the composition of these texts happened after the rise of the Acheminids. Modern scholarship therefore finds a date of composition prior to the 6th century most likely. ^{[80] [81] [82] [83]}

See also

• Ariana
• Greater Khorasan
• Bharata Khanda, its Hindu counterpart
• Seven Old Iranian climes

References

Notes

1. Sources for the different localizations are provided in the description of the image.

Citations

1. Gnoli 2011.
2. Eilers 1980.
3. Kreyenbroek 2011.
4. Grenet 2015.
5. Witzel 2013.
6. Skjaervø 1995, p. 158 "In view of the dearth of historical sources it is of paramount importance that one should evaluate the evidence of the Avesta, the holy book of the Zoroastrians, parts at least of which antedate the Old Persian inscriptions by several centuries.".
7. Vogelsang 2000, p. 50 "While many of the names in the list can be compared with names that occur in other sources (e.g. the Achaemenid inscriptions and classical sources), others remain to be convincingly identified.".
8. Darmesteter 1880, pp. 5–9.
9. Grenet 2005, p. 32 "It is only possible to draw the Iranian plateau into the picture of early Zoroastrianism by recognising one or several of its regions in the remaining countries on the list. This has been the regular tendency of Zoroastrian scholarship since the Sasanian commentators of the Avesta and all modern scholars have followed suit, up until Arthur Christensen (1943).".
10. Gnoli 1980.
11. Vogelsang 2000, p. 58 "The list describes the lands which are located to the north, west, south and east of the mountains of modern Afghanistan.".
12. Witzel 2000, p. 19 "Differently from the previously mentioned Iranian lists, this one is not arranged in pradakshina but in counter-clockwise (apasalavi) fashion".
13. Grenet 2005, pp. 39-40 "There are neither to-and-fro movements nor important gaps, but rather several continuous sequences arranged in an anticlockwise order.".
14. Darmesteter 1898, p. 26.
15. (Henning, Zoroaster, pp. 41ff)
16. Markwart 1901.
17. Witzel 2000 , p. 48: "The Vīdẽvdaδ list obviously was composed or redacted by someone who regarded Afghanistan and the lands surrounding it as the home of all Aryans (airiia), that is of all (eastern) Iranians, with Airiianem Vaẽjah as their center."
18. Witzel 2000 , p. 46: "Airiianəm Vaẽjah signifies the central Afghan highlands. This includes the Ghorat-Hazarajat highlands south, and the highlands north of the Qasa Murg, Bayan and Baba ranges (the Paropanisus); it probably includes some areas north and south of the actual Hindukush Range as well."
19. (Markwart, Ērānšahr, p. 155)
20. Gnoli 1980, p. 227.
21. Skjaervø 1995 , p. 166: "I regard the question of the identity of airiianam vaëjô "the Aryan expanse" as insoluble"
22. Grenet 2015, p. 25.
23. Vogelsang 2000, p. 51: "If Gava and Gabae refer to an identical place, then the present text appears to refer to a situation whereby the center of Sogdia was to lie, not at Samarkand, but further to the west, perhaps at or near Bukhara."
24. Christensen 1943, p. 25: "Môurum est une forme dialectale qui a remplacé un *margum du texte original1. C’est la Margiane.".
25. Darmesteter 1898, p. 65.
26. Geiger 1979, p. 31.
27. Levi 1915, p. 67ff.
28. Christensen 1943, p. 28.
29. Grenet 2005, p. 39: "In a decisive article, Sylvain Lévy showed a long time ago that this identification is mirrored by the Mahāmāyūrī, a Buddhist list of countries considered an excellent source, which gives Vaikrtika as the name of the spirit (yaksa) of Gandhāra."
30. Witzel 2000
31. Gnoli 1980, p. 26–39.
32. Darmesteter 1898, p. 68.
33. Darmesteter 1898.
34. Witzel 2000.
35. Gnoli 1980, p. 39–42: "Ctesias' Barkanioi might in fact be the same people as Herodotus' Parikanioi."
36. Grenet 2015, p. 40: "Vehrkāna, ultimately from vrk, "wolf", undoubtedly underlies "Hyrcania". But it is also attested in Waziristān, a hilly region on the Indo-Afghan border, with the town Urgūn (Pashtun Wergūn < Vehrkāna)"
37. Parpola 2015, p. 97: "It is widely accepted that the Sarasvatī mentioned here is the river that gave the name Harakhvaiti".
38. Schmitt 2000, p. 41: "Dies gilt zum Beispiel für den Namen Arachosiens (der Landschaft um das heutige Qandahar), dessen avestische Form Akk. Haraxᵛaitīm nämlich eine lautgeschichtliche Sonderentwicklung aufweist, -xᵛ - statt normalem -nᵛh- als Fortsetzer von iran. *-hv-. An diese Form, die zuerst Karl Hoffmann als einen in die Avesta-Überlieferung eingedrungenen Arachotismus zu verstehen gelehrt hat, sind vermutungsweise weitere Zeugnisse und Dialektmerkmale des Arachotischen angekoppelt worden, die aber nicht ebensolche Beweiskraft besitzen.".
39. G. Gnoli, Ricerche storiche sul Sīstān antico, Rome, 1967, p. 78 and n. 3
40. Vogelsang 2000.
41. Darmesteter, J. The Zend Avesta, Vol, Second Edition, London, 1895, pp. 253–8
42. Grenet 2005, pp. 42: "Between Ragha and Varena comes Chakhra, which in this perspective would probably correspond to Chitrāl."
43. Darmesteter 1898, p. 72.
44. Grenet 2005 , pp. 34: "[T]he countries Varena and Hapta Hendu, which are held by all modern scholars (and, in the case of Hapta Hendu, even by the Iran-centred Pahlavi tradition) to be in northwest India."
45. Markwart 1938, pp. 132–133: "Das mit diesem Lande das Sapta Sindhawas des Rgweda gemeint ist, kann keinem Zweifel unterliegen."
46. Gnoli 1980, pp. 50–53.
47. Witzel 2000, pp. 28: "Finally, there remains the area called Upa Aodaẽšu Rahaii on the waters(?) of the River Rahå. This is, without doubt, the Vedic Raså, ..."
48. Grenet 2005, pp. 43: "In any case the list eventually ends up near its starting point with the last country, Ranhā, Sanskrit Rasā, where winter lasts ten months like in the Airyanem Vaējah. This country is endowed with mythological features but also, as Witzel rightly argued, it has some basis in reality, namely some upper tributary of the Indus."
49. Grenet 2005, pp. 30: "Of a total of sixteen countries, seven have always been identified beyond doubt, as they kept their name until historical times or even to the present day."
50. Vogelsang 2000, pp. 49: "An additional problem is the question whether all the lands that are mentioned in the list refer to an actual geographical location, or whether in at least some cases we are dealing with mythical names that bear no direct relationship to a specific area. Such a point has often been brought forward as regards the first and the last names in the list: Airyanem Vaejah (No. 1) and Upa Aodaeshu Rahnghaya (No. 16)."
51. Schwartz 1985, pp. 640: "... this whole area is framed by two mythological rivers the Vanhgvi Daitya and the Rangha, on which more will be said below."
52. Markwart 1938, pp. 135: "Auch hier ist die Ranha als ein ferner, dabei reissender und schwer passierbarer Strom vorgestellt und erscheint als Vorbild der verhängnisvollen Chinwatbrücke (der Milchstraße), worin sie sich mit dem Wanuhi Daitja berührt."
53. Witzel 2000, pp. 29: "The Rangha could also be entirely mythological at this passage, as she often is; the same applies to her Vedic counterpart, the Rasā (and the sindhu/Sindhu)."
54. Spiegel 1887, p. 123.
55. von Prášek 1906, p. 29.
56. Gershevitch 1967, pp. 79–80.
57. R. Schmitt. ISHKATA
58. Gershevitch 1967.
59. Schwartz 1985, pp. 641: "... and the Parutian overlords were probably the Paroutai which Ptolemy reports as having occupied the part of Areia (Haravia) near the Hindu-Kush (Ghor)."
60. Vogelsang 2000, p. 62 "The same observations, combined with what was said as regards the Mihr Yasht, would indicate that the geographical names contained in the Mihr Yasht would reflect a time which predates the composition of the Videdat list, since no mention is made of the lands south and east of the Hindu Kush.".
61. Darmesteter 1882, pp. 226–227.
62. Gnoli 2006.
63. Bailey 2011.
64. Boyce 1996, pp. 104: "In the Farvadin Yasht, 143-4, five divisions are recognized among the Iranians, namely the Airya (a term which the Avestan people appear to use of themselves), Tuirya, Sairima, Sainu and Dahi"
65. Schmitt 2011, pp. 684–687: "The linguistic history and the history of their religion and culture indicate that the Aryans (Indo-Iranians) must originally have formed one single people. Only about the beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C. did their unity split up, when Indo-Aryans and Iranians went separate ways."
66. Yarshater 2014, pp. 570–576: "The identification of the Turanians, a rival Iranian tribe, with the Turks, and Afrāsīāb with their king, is a late development, possibly made in the early 7th century, the Turks having first come into contact with the Iranians only in the 6th century."
67. Boyce 1996, pp. 104–105: "The eponymous founders of the second and third groups figure with "Airya" in the Pahlavi tradition as Erec (older *Airyaeca), Tuc (*Tur(a)ca) and Sarm, who are represented as the three sons of Faredon among whom he divided the world. In the Book of Kings they appear as :Eraj, Tur and Salm, of whom Eraj received the realm of Iran itself, Tur the lands to north and east, and Salm those to the west; and ultimately the people of Tur, the Turanians, were identified with the alien Turks, who came to replace the Iranians in those lands."
68. Bailey 1985, pp. 65: "In the Scythian field there are two names to be mentioned. The Sarmatai are in the Avesta Sairima-, and there are also the Sauromatai. The etyma of these two names are somewhat complex. The Sarmatai survived in the Zor. Pahl. slm *salm (the -l- is marked for -l-, not -r-, Bundashin TD 2, 106.15)."
69. Bailey 1959, pp. 109: "A people called by the ethnic name Iran. daha-, now found in Old Persian daha placed before saka in an inscription of Xerxes (Persopolis h 26) has long been known. The Akkadian form is da-a-an for *daha-. The Avestan *daha- attested in the fem. dahi;- is an epithet of lands. Yasht 13.143-4 has the list airyanam ... tūiryanam ... sairimanam ... saininam ... dahinam ... From this we get : Arya-, Turiya-, Sarima-, Saini-, Daha-, as names of peoples known to the early litany of Yasht 13."
70. Bailey 1959, pp. 112: "Though a people called *Dasa, whence the adjective dhasa-, was not known or at least remembered in India, the Iranian evidence of the identical words makes it reasonable that some group did call themselves *Dasa, although the name need not have meant the Daha known to the Achaemenian kings."
71. Daniel 2012, p. 52: "They also included tales of the Kayanian kings, culminating in the reign of Kavi Vishtaspa (Goshtasp) and the warfare between the Iranians and their natural enemies, the Turanians (probably nomadic peoples to the north of Iran, later identified with the Turks).".
72. Kuz'mina 2007, p. 174 "In Iranian texts, the idea about the kinship of all Iranian-speaking languages is reflected in a legend of how the ancestor of the Iranians divided the land between three sons: Sairima, the forefather of Sauromatians (who dwelt in the historic period from the Don to the Urals), Tur, from whom the Turians originated (the northern part of Central Asia was called Turan), and the younger son Iraj, the ancestor of the Iranian population (Christensen 1934).".
73. Ichaporia 2006: "The existing Zamyād Yašt consists of two parts. The first is the geographical fragment, a list of the eminent mountains of the Young Avestan world (secs. 1-8), whose tops are, as it suggests itself, closest to the celestial bodies, to heaven and paradise."
74. Humbach 1998, pp. 49–50.
75. Stein 1886, p. 21-33.
76. Herzfeld 1930, pp. 49–98.
77. Markwart 1938, pp. 17–24.
78. Monchi-Zadeh 1975.
79. Gnoli 2012, pp. 171-172 "It must also be acknowledged that Yašt 19 supplies a singularly detailed description of a specific territory, the only such case to be found throughout the entire Avesta. As seen in the first chapter of the Widēwdād, the country of the Haētumant seems to have had a privileged position (Vd. 1.13-14); because, compared to the other fourteen countries also mentioned in the text, its description occupies twice as much space, with the exception of Airyana Vaēǰah (Vd. 1.1-2).".
80. Vogelsang 2000, p. 62 "All of the above observations would indicate a date for the composition of the Videvdat list which would antedate, for a considerable time, the arrival in Eastern Iran of the Persian Acheamenids (ca. 550 B.C.).".
81. Grenet 2005, pp. 44-45 "It is difficult to imagine that the text was composed anywhere other than in South Afghanistan and later than the middle of the 6th century BCE.".
82. Skjaervø 1995, p.166 "The fact that the oldest Young Avestan texts apparently contain no reference to western Iran, including Media, would seem to indicate that they were composed in eastern Iran before the Median domination reached the area.".
83. Gnoli 2011, pp.44-47 "It seems likely that this geographical part of the Avesta was intended to show the extent of the territory that had been acquired in a period that can not be well defined but that must at any rate have been between Zoroaster's reforms and the beginning of the Achaemenian empire. The likely dating is therefore between the ninth and seventh centuries B.C., starting from the period of the domination of the Aryan followers of Ahura Mazdā (Gnoli, De Zoroastre à Mani, pp. 24ff.).".

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