Cube

Last updated
Cube
Hexahedron.svg
Type Platonic solid
Regular polyhedron
Parallelohedron
Zonohedron
Plesiohedron
Hanner polytope
Faces 6
Edges 12
Vertices 8
Symmetry group octahedral symmetry
Dihedral angle (degrees)90°
Dual polyhedron regular octahedron
Properties convex,
face-transitive,
edge-transitive,
vertex-transitive

In geometry, a cube is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces. It has twelve edges and eight vertices. It can be represented as the rectangular cuboid with six faces are all squares, and parallelepiped with the edges are all equal. It is an example of many type of solids: Platonic solid, regular polyhedron, parallelohedron, zonohedron, and plesiohedron. The dual polyhedron of a cube is the regular octahedron.

Contents

The cube can be represented in many ways, one of which is the graph known as the cubical graph. It can be constructed by using the Cartesian product of graphs. The cube was discovered in antiquity. It was associated with the nature of earth by Plato, the founder of Platonic solid. It was used as the part of the Solar System, proposed by Johannes Kepler. It can be derived differently to create more polyhedrons, and it has applications to construct a new polyhedron by attaching others. It can be generalized as tesseract in four-dimensional space.

Properties

A cube is a special case of rectangular cuboid in which the edges are equal in length. [1] Like other cuboids, every face of a cube has four vertices, each of which connects with three congruent lines. These edges form square faces, making the dihedral angle of a cube between every two adjacent squares being the interior angle of a square, 90°. Hence, the cube has six faces, twelve edges, and eight vertices. [2] Because of such properties, it is categorized as one of the five Platonic solids, a polyhedron in which all the regular polygons are congruent and the same number of faces meet at each vertex. [3]

Measurement and other metric properties

Cube diagonals.svg
A face diagonal in red and space diagonal in blue.

Given that a cube with edge length . The face diagonal of a cube is the diagonal of a square , and the space diagonal of a cube is a line connecting two vertices that is not in the same face, formulated as . Both formulas can be determined by using Pythagorean theorem. The surface area of a cube is six times the area of a square: [4] The volume of a cuboid is the product of length, width, and height. Because the edges of a cube are all equal in length, it is: [4]

A unit cube is a special case where each cube's edge is 1 unit length. The surface area and the volume of a unit cube is 1. [5] [6] It has Rupert property, meaning a polyhedron with the same or larger size can pass through into the hole of the unit cube. The Prince Rupert's cube, named after Prince Rupert of the Rhine, is the largest cube that can fit inside, with the size being 6% larger. [7]

A unit cube and a cube with twice the volume 01-Wurfelverdoppelung-4.svg
A unit cube and a cube with twice the volume

A geometric problem of doubling the cube alternatively known as the Delian problemrequires the construction of a cube with a volume twice the original by using a compass and straightedge solely. Ancient mathematicians could not solve this old problem until French mathematician Pierre Wantzel in 1837 proved it was impossible. [8]

Relation to the spheres

With edge length , the inscribed sphere of a cube is the sphere tangent to the faces of a cube at their centroids, with radius . The midsphere of a cube is the sphere tangent to the edges of a cube, with radius . The circumscribed sphere of a cube is the sphere tangent to the vertices of a cube, with radius . [9]

For a cube whose circumscribed sphere has radius , and for a given point in its three-dimensional space with distances from the cube's eight vertices, it is: [10]

Symmetry

The cube has octahedral symmetry . It is composed of reflection symmetry, a symmetry by cutting into two halves by a plane. There are nine reflection symmetries: the five are cut the cube from the midpoints of its edges, and the four are cut diagonally. It is also composed of rotational symmetry, a symmetry by rotating it around the axis, from which the appearance is interchangeable. It has octahedral rotation symmetry : three axes pass through the cube's opposite faces centroid, six through the cube's opposite edges midpoints, and four through the cube's opposite vertices; each of these axes is respectively four-fold rotational symmetry (0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°), two-fold rotational symmetry (0° and 180°), and three-fold rotational symmetry (0°, 120°, and 240°). [11] [12] [13]

The dual polyhedron of a cube is the regular octahedron Dual Cube-Octahedron.svg
The dual polyhedron of a cube is the regular octahedron

The dual polyhedron can be obtained from each of the polyhedron's vertices tangent to a plane by the process known as polar reciprocation. [14] One property of dual polyhedrons generally is that the polyhedron and its dual share their three-dimensional symmetry point group. In this case, the dual polyhedron of a cube is the regular octahedron, and both of these polyhedron has the same symmetry, the octahedral symmetry. [15]

The cube is face-transitive, meaning its two squares are alike and can be mapped by rotation and reflection. [16] It is vertex-transitive, meaning all of its vertices are equivalent and can be mapped isometrically under its symmetry. [17] It is also edge-transitive, meaning the same kind of faces surround each of its vertices in the same or reverse order, all two adjacent faces have the same dihedral angle. Therefore, the cube is regular polyhedron because it requires those properties. [18]

Classifications

3D model of a cube Hexahedron.stl
3D model of a cube

The cube is a special case among every cuboids. As mentioned above, the cube can be represented as the rectangular cuboid with edges equal in length and all of its faces are all squares. [1] The cube may be considered as the parallelepiped in which all of its edges are equal edges. [19]

The cube is one of the types of parallelohedron, meaning it is a polyhedron that can be translated without rotating to fill a spacecalled honeycomb in which all of its copies are being attached. [20] Every three-dimensional parallelohedron is zonohedron, a centrally symmetric polyhedron whose faces are centrally symmetric polygons, [21] and it is plesiohedron, a special kind of space-filling polyhedron that can be defined as the Voronoi cell of a symmetric Delone set. [22]

Construction

Nets of a cube The 11 cubic nets.svg
Nets of a cube

An elementary way to construct a cube is using the net. A net is an arrangement of edge-joining polygons constructing a polyhedron by connecting along the edges of those polygons. Here, there are eleven different cube's net. [23]

In analytic geometry, a cube may be constructed using the Cartesian coordinate systems. For a cube centered at the origin, with edges parallel to the axes and with an edge length of 2, the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are . [24] Its interior consists of all points with for all . A cube's surface with center and edge length of is the locus of all points such that

The cube is Hanner polytope, because it can be constructed by using Cartesian product of three line segments. Its dual polyhedron, the regular octahedron, is constructed by direct sum of three line segments. [25]

Representation

As a graph

3-cube column graph.svg
Hypercubeconstruction.png
The graph of a cube, and its construction

According to Steinitz's theorem, the graph can be represented as the skeleton of a polyhedron; roughly speaking, a framework of a polyhedron. Such a graph has two properties. It is planar, meaning the edges of a graph are connected to every vertex without crossing other edges. It is also 3-connected graph, meaning that, whenever a graph with more than three vertices, and two of the vertices are removed, the edges remain connected. [26] [27] The skeleton of a cube can be represented as the graph, and it is called the cubical graph, a Platonic graph. It has the same number of vertices and edges as the cube, twelve vertices and eight edges. [28]

The cubical graph is a special case of hypercube graph or -cubedenoted as because it can be constructed by using the operation known as the Cartesian product of graphs. To put it in a plain, its construction involves two graphs connecting the pair of vertices with an edge to form a new graph. [29] In the case of the cubical graph, it is the product of two ; roughly speaking, it is a graph resembling a square. In other words, the cubical graph is constructed by connecting each vertex of two squares with an edge. Notationally, the cubical graph can be denoted as . [30] It is a unit distance graph. [31]

Like other graphs of cuboids, the cubical graph is also classified as the prism graph. [32]

In orthogonal projection

An object illuminated by parallel rays of light casts a shadow on a plane perpendicular to those rays, called an orthogonal projection. A polyhedron is considered equiprojective if, for some position of the light, its orthogonal projection is a regular polygon. The cube is equiprojective because, if the light is parallel to one of the four lines joining a vertex to the opposite vertex, its projection is a regular hexagon. Conventionally, the cube is 6-equiprojective. [33]

As a configuration matrix

The cube can be represented as configuration matrix. A configuration matrix is a matrix in which the rows and columns correspond to the elements of a polyhedron as in the vertices, edges, and faces. The diagonal of a matrix denotes the number of each element that appears in a polyhedron, whereas the non-diagonal of a matrix denotes the number of the column's elements that occur in or at the row's element. As mentioned above, the cube has eight vertices, twelve edges, and six faces; each element in a matrix's diagonal is denoted as 8, 12, and 6. The first column of the middle row indicates that there are two vertices in (i.e., at the extremes of) each edge, denoted as 2; the middle column of the first row indicates that three edges meet at each vertex, denoted as 3. The following matrix is: [34]

Appearances

In antiquity

Kepler Hexahedron Earth.jpg
Sketch of a cube by Johannes Kepler
Mysterium Cosmographicum solar system model.jpg
Kepler's Platonic solid model of the Solar System

The Platonic solid is a set of polyhedrons known since antiquity. It was named after Plato in his Timaeus dialogue, who attributed these solids with nature. One of them, the cube, represented the classical element of earth because of its stability. [35] Euclid's Elements defined the Platonic solids, including the cube, and using these solids with the problem involving to find the ratio of the circumscribed sphere's diameter to the edge length. [36]

Following its attribution with nature by Plato, Johannes Kepler in his Harmonices Mundi sketched each of the Platonic solids, one of them is a cube in which Kepler decorated a tree on it. [35] In his Mysterium Cosmographicum , Kepler also proposed the Solar System by using the Platonic solids setting into another one and separating them with six spheres resembling the six planets. The ordered solids started from the innermost to the outermost: regular octahedron, regular icosahedron, regular dodecahedron, regular tetrahedron, and cube. [37]

Polyhedron, honeycombs, and polytopes

CubeAndStel.svg
Tetrakishexahedron.jpg
Some of the derived cube, the stellated octahedron and tetrakis hexahedron.

The cube can appear in the construction of a polyhedron, and some of its types can be derived differently in the following:

The honeycomb is the space-filling or tessellation in three-dimensional space, meaning it is an object in which the construction begins by attaching any polyhedrons onto their faces without leaving a gap. The cube can be represented as the cell, and examples of a honeycomb are cubic honeycomb, order-5 cubic honeycomb, order-6 cubic honeycomb, and order-7 cubic honeycomb. [45] The cube can be constructed with six square pyramids, tiling space by attaching their apices. [46]

Polycube is a polyhedron in which the faces of many cubes are attached. Analogously, it can be interpreted as the polyominoes in three-dimensional space. [47] When four cubes are stacked vertically, and the other four are attached to the second-from-top cube of the stack, the resulting polycube is Dali cross, after Salvador Dali. The Dali cross is a tile space polyhedron, [48] [49] which can be represented as the net of a tesseract. A tesseract is a cube analogous' four-dimensional space bounded by twenty-four squares, and it is bounded by the eight cubes known as its cells. [50]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuboctahedron</span> Polyhedron with 8 triangular faces and 6 square faces

A cuboctahedron is a polyhedron with 8 triangular faces and 6 square faces. A cuboctahedron has 12 identical vertices, with 2 triangles and 2 squares meeting at each, and 24 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a square. As such, it is a quasiregular polyhedron, i.e., an Archimedean solid that is not only vertex-transitive but also edge-transitive. It is radially equilateral. Its dual polyhedron is the rhombic dodecahedron.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dual polyhedron</span> Polyhedron associated with another by swapping vertices for faces

In geometry, every polyhedron is associated with a second dual structure, where the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other. Such dual figures remain combinatorial or abstract polyhedra, but not all can also be constructed as geometric polyhedra. Starting with any given polyhedron, the dual of its dual is the original polyhedron.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regular icosahedron</span> Polyhedron with 20 regular triangular faces

In geometry, the regular icosahedron is a convex polyhedron that can be constructed from pentagonal antiprism by attaching two pentagonal pyramids with regular faces to each of its pentagonal faces, or by putting points onto the cube. The resulting polyhedron has 20 equilateral triangles as its faces, 30 edges, and 12 vertices. It is an example of a Platonic solid and of a deltahedron. The icosahedral graph represents the skeleton of a regular icosahedron.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Icosidodecahedron</span> Archimedean solid with 32 faces

In geometry, an icosidodecahedron or pentagonal gyrobirotunda is a polyhedron with twenty (icosi) triangular faces and twelve (dodeca) pentagonal faces. An icosidodecahedron has 30 identical vertices, with two triangles and two pentagons meeting at each, and 60 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a pentagon. As such, it is one of the Archimedean solids and more particularly, a quasiregular polyhedron.

In geometry, an octahedron is a polyhedron with eight faces. An octahedron can be considered as a square bipyramid. When the edges of a square bipyramid are all equal in length, it produces a regular octahedron, a Platonic solid composed of eight equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. It is also an example of a deltahedron. An octahedron is the three-dimensional case of the more general concept of a cross polytope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyhedron</span> 3D shape with flat faces, straight edges and sharp corners

In geometry, a polyhedron is a three-dimensional shape with flat polygonal faces, straight edges and sharp corners or vertices.

In geometry, a Platonic solid is a convex, regular polyhedron in three-dimensional Euclidean space. Being a regular polyhedron means that the faces are congruent regular polygons, and the same number of faces meet at each vertex. There are only five such polyhedra:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhombicuboctahedron</span> Archimedean solid with 26 faces

In geometry, rhombicuboctahedron is an Archimedean solid with 26 faces, consisting of 8 equilateral triangles and 18 squares. It is named by Johannes Kepler in his 1618 Harmonices Mundi, being short for truncated cuboctahedral rhombus, with cuboctahedral rhombus being his name for a rhombic dodecahedron.

In geometry, a cuboid is a quadrilateral-faced convex hexahedron, a polyhedron with six faces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snub cube</span> Archimedean solid with 38 faces

In geometry, the snub cube, or snub cuboctahedron, is an Archimedean solid with 38 faces: 6 squares and 32 equilateral triangles. It has 60 edges and 24 vertices. Kepler first named it in Latin as cubus simus in 1619 in his Harmonices Mundi. H. S. M. Coxeter, noting it could be derived equally from the octahedron as the cube, called it snub cuboctahedron, with a vertical extended Schläfli symbol , and representing an alternation of a truncated cuboctahedron, which has Schläfli symbol .

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Truncated cube</span> Archimedean solid with 14 regular faces

In geometry, the truncated cube, or truncated hexahedron, is an Archimedean solid. It has 14 regular faces, 36 edges, and 24 vertices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prism (geometry)</span> Solid with 2 parallel n-gonal bases connected by n parallelograms

In geometry, a prism is a polyhedron comprising an n-sided polygon base, a second base which is a translated copy of the first, and n other faces, necessarily all parallelograms, joining corresponding sides of the two bases. All cross-sections parallel to the bases are translations of the bases. Prisms are named after their bases, e.g. a prism with a pentagonal base is called a pentagonal prism. Prisms are a subclass of prismatoids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Truncated icosidodecahedron</span> Archimedean solid

In geometry, a truncated icosidodecahedron, rhombitruncated icosidodecahedron, great rhombicosidodecahedron, omnitruncated dodecahedron or omnitruncated icosahedron is an Archimedean solid, one of thirteen convex, isogonal, non-prismatic solids constructed by two or more types of regular polygon faces.

A regular polyhedron is a polyhedron whose symmetry group acts transitively on its flags. A regular polyhedron is highly symmetrical, being all of edge-transitive, vertex-transitive and face-transitive. In classical contexts, many different equivalent definitions are used; a common one is that the faces are congruent regular polygons which are assembled in the same way around each vertex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regular polytope</span> Polytope with highest degree of symmetry

In mathematics, a regular polytope is a polytope whose symmetry group acts transitively on its flags, thus giving it the highest degree of symmetry. In particular, all its elements or j-faces — cells, faces and so on — are also transitive on the symmetries of the polytope, and are themselves regular polytopes of dimension jn.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rectification (geometry)</span> Operation in Euclidean geometry

In Euclidean geometry, rectification, also known as critical truncation or complete-truncation, is the process of truncating a polytope by marking the midpoints of all its edges, and cutting off its vertices at those points. The resulting polytope will be bounded by vertex figure facets and the rectified facets of the original polytope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Truncation (geometry)</span> Operation that cuts polytope vertices, creating a new facet in place of each vertex

In geometry, a truncation is an operation in any dimension that cuts polytope vertices, creating a new facet in place of each vertex. The term originates from Kepler's names for the Archimedean solids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Midsphere</span> Sphere tangent to every edge of a polyhedron

In geometry, the midsphere or intersphere of a convex polyhedron is a sphere which is tangent to every edge of the polyhedron. Not every polyhedron has a midsphere, but the uniform polyhedra, including the regular, quasiregular and semiregular polyhedra and their duals all have midspheres. The radius of the midsphere is called the midradius. A polyhedron that has a midsphere is said to be midscribed about this sphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regular dodecahedron</span> Polyhedron with 12 regular pentagonal faces

A regular dodecahedron or pentagonal dodecahedron is a dodecahedron composed of regular pentagonal faces, three meeting at each vertex. It is an example of Platonic solids, described as cosmic stellation by Plato in his dialogues, and it was used as part of Solar System proposed by Johannes Kepler. However, the regular dodecahedron, including the other Platonic solids, has already been described by other philosophers since antiquity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ideal polyhedron</span> Shape in hyperbolic geometry

In three-dimensional hyperbolic geometry, an ideal polyhedron is a convex polyhedron all of whose vertices are ideal points, points "at infinity" rather than interior to three-dimensional hyperbolic space. It can be defined as the convex hull of a finite set of ideal points. An ideal polyhedron has ideal polygons as its faces, meeting along lines of the hyperbolic space.

References

  1. 1 2 Mills, Steve; Kolf, Hillary (1999). Maths Dictionary. Heinemann. p. 16. ISBN   978-0-435-02474-1.
  2. Johnson, Norman W. (1966). "Convex polyhedra with regular faces". Canadian Journal of Mathematics . 18: 169–200. doi: 10.4153/cjm-1966-021-8 . MR   0185507. S2CID   122006114. Zbl   0132.14603. See table II, line 3.
  3. Herrmann, Diane L.; Sally, Paul J. (2013). Number, Shape, & Symmetry: An Introduction to Number Theory, Geometry, and Group Theory. Taylor & Francis. p. 252. ISBN   978-1-4665-5464-1.
  4. 1 2 Khattar, Dinesh (2008). Guide to Objective Arithmetic (2nd ed.). Pearson Education. p. 377. ISBN   978-81-317-1682-3.
  5. Ball, Keith (2010). "High-dimensional geometry and its probabilistic analogues". In Gowers, Timothy (ed.). The Princeton Companion to Mathematics. Princeton University Press. p.  671. ISBN   9781400830398.
  6. Geometry: Reteaching Masters. Holt Rinehart & Winston. 2001. p. 74. ISBN   9780030543289.
  7. Sriraman, Bharath (2009). "Mathematics and literature (the sequel): imagination as a pathway to advanced mathematical ideas and philosophy". In Sriraman, Bharath; Freiman, Viktor; Lirette-Pitre, Nicole (eds.). Interdisciplinarity, Creativity, and Learning: Mathematics With Literature, Paradoxes, History, Technology, and Modeling. The Montana Mathematics Enthusiast: Monograph Series in Mathematics Education. Vol. 7. Information Age Publishing, Inc. pp. 41–54. ISBN   9781607521013.
  8. Lützen, Jesper (2010). "The Algebra of Geometric Impossibility: Descartes and Montucla on the Impossibility of the Duplication of the Cube and the Trisection of the Angle". Centaurus. 52 (1): 4–37. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.2009.00160.x.
  9. Coxeter (1973) Table I(i), pp. 292–293. See the columns labeled , , and , Coxeter's notation for the circumradius, midradius, and inradius, respectively, also noting that Coxeter uses as the edge length (see p. 2).
  10. Poo-Sung, Park, Poo-Sung (2016). "Regular polytope distances" (PDF). Forum Geometricorum . 16: 227–232.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. French, Doug (1988). "Reflections on a Cube". Mathematics in School. 17 (4): 30–33. JSTOR   30214515.
  12. Cromwell, Peter R. (1997). Polyhedra. Cambridge University Press. p. 309. ISBN   978-0-521-55432-9.
  13. Cunningham, Gabe; Pellicer, Daniel (2024). "Finite 3-orbit polyhedra in ordinary space, II". Boletín de la Sociedad Matemática Mexicana. 30 (32). doi: 10.1007/s40590-024-00600-z . See p. 276.
  14. Cundy, H. Martyn; Rollett, A.P. (1961). "3.2 Duality". Mathematical models (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 78–79. MR   0124167.
  15. Erickson, Martin (2011). Beautiful Mathematics. Mathematical Association of America. p. 62. ISBN   978-1-61444-509-8.
  16. McLean, K. Robin (1990). "Dungeons, dragons, and dice". The Mathematical Gazette . 74 (469): 243–256. doi:10.2307/3619822. JSTOR   3619822. S2CID   195047512. See p. 247.
  17. Grünbaum, Branko (1997). "Isogonal Prismatoids". Discrete & Computational Geometry. 18: 13–52. doi:10.1007/PL00009307.
  18. Senechal, Marjorie (1989). "A Brief Introduction to Tilings". In Jarić, Marko (ed.). Introduction to the Mathematics of Quasicrystals. Academic Press. p. 12.
  19. Calter, Paul; Calter, Michael (2011). Technical Mathematics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 197. ISBN   978-0-470-53492-2.
  20. Alexandrov, A. D. (2005). "8.1 Parallelohedra". Convex Polyhedra. Springer. pp. 349–359.
  21. In higher dimensions, however, there exist parallelopes that are not zonotopes. See e.g. Shephard, G. C. (1974). "Space-filling zonotopes". Mathematika. 21 (2): 261–269. doi:10.1112/S0025579300008652. MR   0365332.
  22. Erdahl, R. M. (1999). "Zonotopes, dicings, and Voronoi's conjecture on parallelohedra". European Journal of Combinatorics. 20 (6): 527–549. doi: 10.1006/eujc.1999.0294 . MR   1703597.. Voronoi conjectured that all tilings of higher dimensional spaces by translates of a single convex polytope are combinatorially equivalent to Voronoi tilings, and Erdahl proves this in the special case of zonotopes. But as he writes (p. 429), Voronoi's conjecture for dimensions at most four was already proven by Delaunay. For the classification of three-dimensional parallelohedra into these five types, see Grünbaum, Branko; Shephard, G. C. (1980). "Tilings with congruent tiles". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society . New Series. 3 (3): 951–973. doi: 10.1090/S0273-0979-1980-14827-2 . MR   0585178.
  23. Jeon, Kyungsoon (2009). "Mathematics Hiding in the Nets for a CUBE". Teaching Children Mathematics. 15 (7): 394–399. doi:10.5951/TCM.15.7.0394. JSTOR   41199313.
  24. Smith, James (2000). Methods of Geometry. John Wiley & Sons. p. 392. ISBN   978-1-118-03103-2.
  25. Kozachok, Marina (2012). "Perfect prismatoids and the conjecture concerning with face numbers of centrally symmetric polytopes". Yaroslavl International Conference "Discrete Geometry" dedicated to the centenary of A.D.Alexandrov (Yaroslavl, August 13-18, 2012) (PDF). P.G. Demidov Yaroslavl State University, International B.N. Delaunay Laboratory. pp. 46–49.
  26. Grünbaum, Branko (2003). "13.1 Steinitz's theorem". Convex Polytopes. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Vol. 221 (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. pp. 235–244. ISBN   0-387-40409-0.
  27. Ziegler, Günter M. (1995). "Chapter 4: Steinitz' Theorem for 3-Polytopes". Lectures on Polytopes. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Vol. 152. Springer-Verlag. pp. 103–126. ISBN   0-387-94365-X.
  28. Rudolph, Michael (2022). The Mathematics of Finite Networks: An Introduction to Operator Graph Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 25. doi:10.1007/9781316466919 (inactive 2024-07-17). ISBN   9781316466919.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2024 (link)
  29. Harary, F.; Hayes, J. P.; Wu, H.-J. (1988). "A survey of the theory of hypercube graphs". Computers & Mathematics with Applications. 15 (4): 277–289. doi:10.1016/0898-1221(88)90213-1. hdl: 2027.42/27522 .
  30. Chartrand, Gary; Zhang, Ping (2012). A First Course in Graph Theory. Dover Publications. p. 25.
  31. Horvat, Boris; Pisanski, Tomaž (2010). "Products of unit distance graphs". Discrete Mathematics . 310 (12): 1783–1792. doi: 10.1016/j.disc.2009.11.035 . MR   2610282.
  32. Pisanski, Tomaž; Servatius, Brigitte (2013). Configuration from a Graphical Viewpoint. Springer. p. 21. doi:10.1007/978-0-8176-8364-1. ISBN   978-0-8176-8363-4.
  33. Hasan, Masud; Hossain, Mohammad M.; López-Ortiz, Alejandro; Nusrat, Sabrina; Quader, Saad A.; Rahman, Nabila (2010). "Some New Equiprojective Polyhedra". arXiv: 1009.2252 [cs.CG].
  34. Coxeter, H.S.M. (1973). Regular Polytopes (3rd ed.). New York: Dover Publications. pp.  122–123. See §1.8 Configurations.
  35. 1 2 Cromwell (1997), p.  55.
  36. Heath, Thomas L. (1908). The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 262, 478, 480.
  37. Livio, Mario (2003) [2002]. The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, the World's Most Astonishing Number (1st trade paperback ed.). New York City: Broadway Books. p. 147. ISBN   978-0-7679-0816-0.
  38. Inchbald, Guy (2006). "Facetting Diagrams". The Mathematical Gazette . 90 (518): 253–261. doi:10.1017/S0025557200179653. JSTOR   40378613.
  39. Slobodan, Mišić; Obradović, Marija; Ðukanović, Gordana (2015). "Composite Concave Cupolae as Geometric and Architectural Forms" (PDF). Journal for Geometry and Graphics. 19 (1): 79–91.
  40. Rajwade, A. R. (2001). Convex Polyhedra with Regularity Conditions and Hilbert's Third Problem. Texts and Readings in Mathematics. Hindustan Book Agency. p. 8489. doi:10.1007/978-93-86279-06-4. ISBN   978-93-86279-06-4.
  41. Cromwell (1997), pp.  81–82.
  42. Linti, G. (2013). "Catenated Compounds - Group 13 [Al, Ga, In, Tl]". In Reedijk, J.; Poeppelmmeier, K. (eds.). Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry II: From Elements to Applications. Newnes. p. 41. ISBN   978-0-08-096529-1.
  43. Viana, Vera; Xavier, João Pedro; Aires, Ana Paula; Campos, Helena (2019). "Interactive Expansion of Achiral Polyhedra". In Cocchiarella, Luigi (ed.). ICGG 2018 - Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Geometry and Graphics 40th Anniversary - Milan, Italy, August 3-7, 2018. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. Vol. 809. Springer. p. 1123. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95588-9. ISBN   978-3-319-95587-2. See Fig. 6.
  44. Holme, A. (2010). Geometry: Our Cultural Heritage. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14441-7. ISBN   978-3-642-14441-7.
  45. Coxeter, H. S. M. (1968). The Beauty of Geometry: Twelve Essays. Dover Publications. p. 167. ISBN   978-0-486-40919-1. See table III.
  46. Barnes, John (2012). Gems of Geometry (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 82. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-30964-9. ISBN   978-3-642-30964-9.
  47. Lunnon, W. F. (1972). "Symmetry of Cubical and General Polyominoes". In Read, Ronald C. (ed.). Graph Theory and Computing. New York: Academic Press. pp. 101–108. ISBN   978-1-48325-512-5.
  48. Diaz, Giovanna; O'Rourke, Joseph (2015). "Hypercube unfoldings that tile and ". arXiv: 1512.02086 [cs.CG].
  49. Langerman, Stefan; Winslow, Andrew (2016). "Polycube unfoldings satisfying Conway's criterion" (PDF). 19th Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Graphs, and Games (JCDCG^3 2016).
  50. Hall, T. Proctor (1893). "The projection of fourfold figures on a three-flat". American Journal of Mathematics . 15 (2): 179–189. doi:10.2307/2369565. JSTOR   2369565.