Amarakaeri (north) and Watipaeri (south). The shadowed area is the probable earlier distribution of the Harakmbut language.
Harakmbut or Harakmbet (stress on the second syllable) is the native language of the Harakmbut people of Peru. It is spoken along the Madre de Dios and Colorado Rivers, in the pre-contact country of the people. There are two dialects that remain vital: Amarakaeri (Arakmbut) and Watipaeri (Huachipaeri), which are reported to be mutually intelligible. The relationship between speakers of the two dialects is hostile.[2]
As of 2012, Amarakaeri is still being learned by children in some communities.[1] There 5% literacy compared to 75% literacy in the second language Spanish.[1] They live in the communities of Puerto Luz, Shintuya, San José Del Karene, Barranco Chico, Boca Inambari, Boca Ishiriwe, Puerto Azul, Masenawa and Kotsimba. The name Amarakaeri, from wa-mba-arak-a-eri "murderers", is considered derogatory; the endonym Arakmbut is preferred.[2]
Speakers of Watipaeri (wa-tipa-eri) are mostly concentrated in the indigenous communities of Queros and Santa Rosa de Huacaria, in the Peruvian rainforest. Their members have been experiencing cultural loss, including the complexities of their language, particularly because of the generational gap between the elders and the youth.[3]
Amarakaeri (autonym: Arakmbut), the most widely spoken dialect, is spoken in the indigenous communities of Puerto Luz, Shintuya, San José Del Karene, Barranco Chico, Boca Inambari, Boca Ishiriwe, Puerto Azul, Masenawa, and Kotsimba. There is an ethnic population of 1043 as of 2007.
Watipaeri, with an ethnic population of 392 in Queros and Santa Rosa de Huacaria
Arasaeri has an ethnic population of 317 in Arazaeri (arãsã-eri, people of the Marcatapa River; spoken in Arazaeri)
Pukirieri has an ethnic population of 168 (pukiri-eri, people of the Pukiri River)
Sapiteri and Kisambaeri (ethnic population of 47, in Barranco Chico)
Toyoeri: extinct (toyo(dn)-eri, people downriver)
There are at most only a handful of fluent speakers remaining for any of these dialects.[2]
The genetic position of Toyoeri is disputed. Some researchers have divided the dialects into two main groups, with Watipaeri and Toyoeri phonetically and lexically somewhat different from Amarakaeri/Arakmbut, Arasaeri and Sapiteri. Data from Aza (1936) and Peck (1958), however, suggest that Arakmbut is different from the other four, which are similar to each other.[2]
Classification
Harakmbut has been accepted as a language isolate since the 1960s.[2] Adelaar (2000, 2007)[5][6] presents mainly lexical evidence that it is related to the Katukinan family of Brazil; influence from Tupian languages also suggest an origin in Brazil. Campbell (2012) accepted the evidence as "reasonably persuasive".[7] Jolkesky (2011) concurs, and adds Arawan to the family.[8]Glottolog notes "promising lexical links with Katukina [...] with a fair amount of near-identical forms, but the systems of pronouns, numerals or bound morphology show no cognation.[citation needed]
Language contact
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Pano, Puinave-Nadahup, Tupian, and Arawakan language families due to contact.[9]
Similarities with Tupian may be indicative of an earlier origin downstream in the Madeira River interaction sphere.[9]:344
Phonology
The following inventory is that of Amarakaeri, the most vital dialect. Other dialects appear to only differ in the presence of /h/ or the lack of /w/.
When adjacent to /a/, /e/ tends to rise to /i/ or /j/. This can cause palatalization of a preceding consonant, e.g. kate-apo 'why?' as [ˈkatiabɔ] or [ˈkaʧabɔ]. Similarly, /o/ tends to rise to /u/ or /w/ when adjacent to /a/ or /e/, e.g. ĩ-nõ-põ-ẽ-ỹ 'I know' as [ĩˈnɔ̃pwɛ̃j̃].[2]
The phonemic status of [h] and [ʔ] is not clear. They vary between dialects, but also between speakers and even with the same speaker in Arakmbut. They may be epenthetic consonants used to demarcate syllables that do not have an onset or coda consonant.[2]
/t k n s/ occur in syllable codas, and /ŋ/ only in syllable codas.[2]
Stops tend toward [bdɡ] in intervocalic position. (In Toyoeri and Sapiteri, this has only been reported for /k/.) Among younger people, and often among their elders, the alveolars /t n/ palatalize to [t͜ʃ] and [ɲ] (or [nd͜ʒ]) before /i, ĩ/; /s/ palatalizes to [ʃ] before /i, ĩ/ and /u, ũ/. (In Toyoeri and Sapiteri, this has only been reported for /t/.)[2]
The nasal consonants have different realizations, depending on whether adjacent vowels are oral or nasal, with /m/ and /n/ affected before an oral vowel, and /n/ and /ŋ/ affected after one:
Nasal allophones
V_
Ṽ_
_V
_Ṽ
m
m
m
mb
m
n
dn
n
nd
n
ŋ
ɡŋ
ŋ
—
This allophonic variation is reflected in the community orthography, and the same pattern has been reported for Watipaeri, Arasaeri, Toyoeri and Sapiteri.[2]
The nature of Harakmbut nasality has yet to be fully elucidated, and in Amarakaeri at least there is some free variation of allophones. For instance, 'five' has been attested as both [waˈmaʔnɛ̃ŋ] and [waˈmbaʔnɛ̃ŋ]. Nonetheless, there is a phonemic distinction of vowel nasalization after nasal consonants, as in the proper name /mɔɾimɔ̃/.[2]
Stress is on the penultimate syllable, not counting inflectional suffixes, which do not change stress placement in a word.[2]
Grammar
Noun phrases follow a fixed order of base-case-collective-focus1-focus2. Nouns can take on 11 cases, as well as the collective suffix -(o)mey and the focus suffixes -yo 'only', -nãỹõ, or -nda. The privative denotes lack or absence of the referent.
Pronouns in Harakmbut inflect for person and number. There are two independent demonstrative pronouns: proximal ine and distal kene. When modifying a noun, these become in and ken, respectively. Interrogative pronouns mainly distinguish between human and non-human referents, with mbeʔ 'who/which' being for human referents and kate 'what/which' denoting nonhuman referents. men 'which' may also be used for nonhuman referents. These also serve as the realis indefinite pronouns. Free-choice indefinites, however, add the clitic = piʔ.[2]
Personal pronouns
Singular
Plural
1
ndoʔ
oroʔ
2
on
opudn
3
ken
mboerek
man
o-mba-yok-me
3SG.IND-V.PL-give-REC.PST
tareʔ
manioc
mbeʔ-ta=piʔ
somebody-ACC=INDET
mboerek o-mba-yok-me tareʔ mbeʔ-ta=piʔ
man 3SG.IND-V.PL-give-REC.PST manioc somebody-ACC=INDET
The man gave manioc to whomever
In Harákmbut, there are two main noun classe: free nouns and bound nouns. While free nouns can act as their own lexical items, bound nouns require a prefix. There are two nominalizers, wa- and e-, that derive a free noun from a bound noun. They may derive different semantic meanings from the same root (i.e. wa-mbaʔ 'hand', e-mbaʔ 'leaf'). e- nouns generally derive inalienably possessed nouns, like body parts, plant parts, and landscape parts. Otherwise, nouns are 'bound' to a prefix, which can be a genitive, determiner, demonstrative, interrogative pronouns, or other modifier.
Numerals in Harákmbut, like in many languages, refer to the five-fingered hand as a base.[2]
Cardinal numbers
Numeral
Harákmbut
Gloss
1
noŋ-ti-nda
other-SPAT:up-NDA
2
mbottaʔ
two
3
mbapaʔ
three
4
mbottaʔ-mbottaʔ
two-two
5
wa-mbaʔ-neŋ
NMLZ-hand-amount
Adjectives may be prenominal and prefixed to the noun or postnominal with a nominalizing prefix. While often used in adjectives, it is unclear the exact function of the suffix -nda outside of being a focus marker in the noun phrase.
Verbs in Harákmbut contain four fixed prefix positions and seven fixed suffix positions. The verbal plural marker and spatial markers may be positioned in multiple acceptable places in the prefix. The first prefix is a mood and argument agreement prefix, followed by applicative marking, then the nominal classifier, and finally the socially causative. There are three moods: indicative, dubious, and imperative. Each type agreement and mood has a specific prefix and suffix combination based on the person, its role (Agent or Object), and the mood. After the verbs stem, the suffixes denote the aspect, associated motion, the verbal plural, tense, and transitivity.[2]
Mood and agreement affixes
Agent
Object
1SG
2SG
3SG/PL
1PL
2PL
IND/DUB
IMP
IND/DUB
IMP
IND/DUB
IMP
IND
IMP
IND
IMP
1SG
o(ʔ)-...-ne
o(ʔ)-...-i
i(ʔ)-...-i
a(ʔ)-...-i
on-...-ne
on-...-i
2SG
o(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)e(ʔ)-...-ø
i(ʔ)-...-ne
(y)a(ʔ)-...-ø
o(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-~men-...-ne
3SG
m(b)e(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)e(ʔ)--eʔ
m(b)e(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)e(ʔ)-...-eʔ
o(ʔ)-...-ø (indicative)
(y)a(ʔ)-...-ø (dubious)
ka(ʔ)-...-eʔ
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-~men-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-eʔ
1PL
o(ʔ)-...-ne
o(ʔ)-...-i
o(ʔ)-...-i (inclusive)
o(ʔ)-...-ne (exclusive)
m(b)o(ʔ)- (dual)
mon- (plural)
on-...-ne
on-...-i
2PL
on-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-~men-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-ne
(y)an(d)-...-ø
on-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-~men-...-ne
3PL
men-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-~men-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-eʔ
on(d)-...-ø (indicative)
(y)an(d)-...-ø (dubious)
kan(d)-...-eʔ
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-~men-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-ne
m(b)o(ʔ)-...-eʔ
On finite verbs, the future (-apo), present (unmarked), recent past (-me), and distant past (-uy) tenses are distinguished. The indirect evidential marker -(a)te is suffixed after past tense markers. Inferential modality is marked with -ta and epistemic modality with -et. Future possibility is marked by -ipot.[2]
Verbal pluractionality is marked on verbs, as well as habitual -ika and iterative -e. The perfective aspect marker -a(d)n also codes volitionality (whether an action was performed intentionally), while non-volitionality is marked with -o(d)n. Verbs can be marked with a spatial or associated motion.
Aza Martínez, J. P. (1936). Vocabulario español-arasairi. Lima: San Martín y Cía. BACELAR, L. N. (1992). Fonologia preliminar da língua Kanoê. Brasilia: UnB.
Peck, Ch. (2008 [1979]). Toyeri y Sapiteri: un informe preliminar de la fonología y el vocabulario. (Datos Etno-Lingüísticos, 67). Lima: Ministerio de Educación and Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Tripp, R. (1995). Diccionario Amarakaeri-Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 34). Yarinacocha: Ministerio de Educación / Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Harakmbut An van linden, "Harakmbut". In Patience Epps and Lev Michael, eds, Amazonian Languages, An International Handbook. De Gruyter Mouton
Related Research Articles
The Eskaleut, Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent, and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of what are now the United States (Alaska); Canada including Nunavut, Northwest Territories, northern Quebec (Nunavik), and northern Labrador (Nunatsiavut); Greenland; and the Russian Far East. The language family is also known as Eskaleutian, or Eskaleutic.
Crow is a Missouri Valley Siouan language spoken primarily by the Crow Tribe in present-day southeastern Montana. The word Apsáalooke translates to "Children of the Large Beaked Bird", which was later incorrectly translated into English as 'Crow'. It is one of the larger populations of American Indian languages with 4,160 speakers according to the 2015 US Census.
Mbula is an Austronesian language spoken by around 2,500 people on Umboi Island and Sakar Island in the Morobe Province of Papua New Guinea. Its basic word order is subject–verb–object; it has a nominative–accusative case-marking strategy.
Argobba is an Ethiopian Semitic language spoken in several districts of Afar, Amhara, and Oromia regions of Ethiopia by the Argobba people. It belongs to the South Ethiopic languages subgroup, and is closely related to Amharic.
Eastern Pomo, also known as Clear Lake Pomo, is a nearly extinct Pomoan language spoken around Clear Lake in Lake County, California by one of the Pomo peoples.
Yanomaman, also as Yanomam, Yanomáman, Yamomámi, and Yanomamana, is a family of languages spoken by about 20,000 Yanomami people in southern Venezuela and northwestern Brazil.
Tooro or Rutooro is a Bantu language spoken mainly by the Tooro people (Abatooro) from the Tooro Kingdom in western Uganda. There are three main areas where Tooro as a language is mainly used: Kabarole District, Kyenjojo District and Kyegegwa District. Tooro is unusual among Bantu languages as it lacks lexical tone. It is most closely related to Runyoro.
Máku, also spelled Mako, and in the language itself Jukude, is an unclassified language and likely language isolate once spoken on the Brazil–Venezuela border in Roraima along the upper Uraricoera and lower Auari rivers, west of Boa Vista, by the Jukudeitse. 300 years ago, the Jukude territory was between the Padamo and Cunucunuma rivers to the southwest.
Karajá, also known as Iny rybè, is spoken by the Karajá people in some thirty villages in central Brazil.
The Yimas language is spoken by the Yimas people, who populate the Sepik River Basin region of Papua New Guinea. It is spoken primarily in Yimas village, Karawari Rural LLG, East Sepik Province. It is a member of the Lower-Sepik language family. All 250-300 speakers of Yimas live in two villages along the lower reaches of the Arafundi River, which stems from a tributary of the Sepik River known as the Karawari River.
Apma is the language of central Pentecost island in Vanuatu. Apma is an Oceanic language. Within Vanuatu it sits between North Vanuatu and Central Vanuatu languages, and combines features of both groups.
Anejom̃ or Aneityum is an Oceanic language spoken by 900 people on Aneityum Island, Vanuatu. It is the only indigenous language of Aneityum.
The Nukak language is a language of uncertain classification, perhaps part of the macrofamily Puinave-Maku. It is very closely related to Kakwa.
Ramarama, also known as Karo, is a Tupian language of Brazil.
Bandial (Banjaal), or Eegima (Eegimaa), is a Jola language of the Casamance region of Senegal. The three dialects, Affiniam, Bandial proper, and Elun are divergent, on the border between dialects and distinct languages.
Ye'kuana, also known as Maquiritari, Dekwana, Ye'kwana, Ye'cuana, Yekuana, Cunuana, Kunuhana, De'cuana, De’kwana Carib, Pawana, Maquiritai, Maquiritare, Maiongong, or Soto is the language of the Ye'kuana people of Venezuela and Brazil. It is a Cariban language. It is spoken by approximately 5,900 people around the border of northwestern Brazilian state of Roraima and Venezuela – the majority in Venezuela. At the time of the 2001 Venezuelan census, there were at 6,523 Ye’kuana living in Venezuela. Given the unequal distribution of the Ye’kuana across two South American countries, Ethnologue lists two different vitality ratings for Ye’kuana: in Venezuela it is listed as Vigorous (6a), while in Brazil it is classified Moribund (8a) on the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS).
Wandala, also known as Mandara or Mura', is a language in the Chadic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, spoken in Cameroon and Nigeria.
Avá-Canoeiro, known as Avá or Canoe, is a minor Tupi–Guaraní language of the state of Goiás, in Brazil. It can be further divided into two dialects: Tocantins Avá-Canoeiro and Araguaia Avá-Canoeiro. All speakers of the language are monolingual.
Neveʻei, also known as Vinmavis, is an Oceanic language of central Malekula, Vanuatu. There are around 500 primary speakers of Neveʻei and about 750 speakers in total.
Nuaulu is a language indigenous to the island of Seram Island in Indonesia, and it is spoken by the Nuaulu people. The language is split into two dialects, a northern and a southern dialect, between which there a communication barrier. The dialect of Nuaulu referred to on this page is the southern dialect, as described in Bolton 1991.
↑ Epps, Patience; Michael, Lev, eds. (2023). Amazonian Languages: Language Isolates. Volume I: Aikanã to Kandozi-Chapra. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN978-3-11-041940-5.
↑ Willem Adelaar (2000) Propuesta de un nuevo vínculo genético entre dos grupos lingüísticos indígenas de la Amazonía occidental: Harakmbut y Katukina. In Luis Miranda Esquerre (ed.) Actas del I Congreso de Lenguas Indígenas de Sudamérica, 219–236. Universidad Ricardo Palma, Lima.
↑ —— (2007) Ensayo de clasificación del katawixí dentro del conjunto harakmbut-katukina. In Figueroa, Garay & Mori (eds.) Lenguas indígenas de América del Sur: Estudios descriptivo-tipológicos y sus contribuciones para la lingüística teórica, 159–169. Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, Caracas.
↑ Campbell, Lyle (2012). "Classification of the indigenous languages of South America". In Grondona, Verónica; Campbell, Lyle (eds.). The Indigenous Languages of South America. The World of Linguistics. Vol.2. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp.59–166. ISBN978-3-11-025513-3.
Alain Fabre, 2005, Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos, Harakmbet – Lengua aislada (language isolate) (in Spanish)
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
