SS United States at sea in the 1950s | |
History | |
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United States | |
Name | United States |
Owner | United States Lines |
Operator | United States Lines |
Port of registry | New York City |
Route |
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Ordered | 1949 [1] |
Builder | Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company [1] |
Cost | $71.8 million ($676 million in 2023 [2] ) |
Yard number | Hull 488 [3] |
Laid down | February 8, 1950 |
Launched | June 23, 1951 [4] |
Christened | June 23, 1951 [4] |
Maiden voyage | July 3, 1952 |
In service | 1952 |
Out of service | November 14, 1969 [5] |
Identification |
|
Nickname(s) | Big U |
Owner | Various |
Acquired | 1978 |
Notes | Multiple owners since 1978 [6] |
Owner | SS United States Conservancy |
Acquired | February 1, 2011 |
Status | Laid up in Philadelphia awaiting possible sinking as artificial reef [7] |
Notes | Continual fundraising since 2011 for conservation [7] |
General characteristics | |
Type | Ocean liner |
Tonnage | 53,329 GRT, 29,475 NRT |
Displacement |
|
Length |
|
Beam | 101.5 ft (30.9 m) maximum |
Height | 175 ft (53 m) (keel to funnel) [8] |
Draft |
|
Decks | 12 [9] : 16 |
Installed power | |
Propulsion |
|
Speed |
|
Capacity | 1,928 passengers |
Crew | 1,044 [9] : 16 |
SS United States (Steamship) | |
Location | Pier 82, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
Coordinates | 39°55′06″N75°08′11″W / 39.91833°N 75.13639°W |
Architect | William Francis Gibbs |
NRHP reference No. | 99000609 [10] |
Added to NRHP | June 3, 1999 |
SS United States is a retired ocean liner built during 1950 and 1951 for United States Lines. She is the largest ocean liner constructed entirely in the United States and the fastest ocean liner to cross the Atlantic in either direction, retaining the Blue Riband for the highest average speed since her maiden voyage in 1952, a title she still holds.
The ship was designed by American naval architect William Francis Gibbs and could have been converted into a troopship if required by the Navy in time of war. The ship served as an icon for the nation, transporting numerous celebrities throughout her career between 1952 and 1969. Her design included innovations in steam propulsion, hull form, fire safety, and damage control.
Following a financial collapse of United States Lines, she was withdrawn from service in a surprise announcement. The ship has been sold several times since the 1970s, with each new owner trying unsuccessfully to make the liner profitable. Eventually, the ship's fittings were sold at auction, leaving her stripped by 1994. Two years later, she was towed to Philadelphia, where she has remained.
Since 2009, the 'SS United States Conservancy' has been raising funds to save the ship. The group purchased her in 2011 and has drawn up several unrealized plans to restore the ship, one of which included turning the ship into a multi-purpose waterfront complex. Donations have allowed the ship to avoid being scrapped as the ship awaits development while berthed in Philadelphia.
Due to a rent dispute, the ship has been ordered to leave her pier by 12 September 2024 by a judge. If the ship is not relocated in time, she would be sunk as an artificial reef off Destin, Florida.
When eight-year-old William Gibbs watched the launching of the SS St. Louis in 1894, he became enamored with the sights of ships and dreamed of a massive and grand American ship to trump all others. [1] : 17, 18
As an adult, his first project was to lead the redesign and reconstruction of the ocean liner Leviathan , the largest ship in the world and an American war prize following World War I. Once complete, his seemingly natural skill was appreciated by the government, media, and other architects, with groups such as the Pacific Marine Review referring to him as, ‘America’s foremost naval architect’. [1] : 84–85 [11] : 160
The first ship purely of Gibb’s design was the Malolo , a luxury liner for the Pacific. During her sea trials, the ship was struck directly amidship by a freighter, ripping a massive hole into her engine room. So severe, former Chief of US Navy Construction and Gibb’s mentor David Taylor thought the ship would immediately sink, much like the RMS Empress of Ireland did in similar circumstances. However, the ship stayed afloat with little damage or casualties. The success was credited to Gibb’s meticulous designs, further propelling his fame. [11] : 200 [1] : 118–123, 202
His work put Gibbs in contact with American officials, to which he pitched his idea for a massive, American-flagged liner. By 1936, the government was looking to replace the aging Leviathan so a new vessel could operate as a passenger liner during peacetime and as a transport during war. Gibbs was selected to design the ship, which eventually became the SS America, a precursor to United States. [1] : 85–86, 169
At the end of the Second World War, Gibbs and his company designed more than 70% of all American ships used during the conflict, and Gibbs was at the high of his career. With the war over, he believed it was time to realize his vision of an American superliner. [1] : 202
During the Second World War, many ocean liners, including Normandie and Queen Mary, were seized or requisitioned and used to transport soldiers between various fronts. In 1945, the US Maritime Commission requested designs for a ship that could handle the role for future conflicts. Gibbs submitted a design of his decades old vision, which eventually won the contract. [1] : 186, 203
The most promising use of the liner in war would have been as a troop transport. If mobilized, onboard furnishings could have been easily removed to make room for a 14,400-man US Army division. Her size and speed meant that she could rapidly deploy a division anywhere in the world without the need to refuel. [9] : 12 [1] : 215
The power plant of the ship was developed with unusual cooperation with the Navy, leading to a militarized design. The ship never used US Navy equipment, instead opting for civilian variants of various military models. The engine room arrangement was similar to large warships such as the Forrestal-class aircraft carriers, with engineering spaces isolated and various redundancies and backups in onboard systems. [9] : 129, 141
In normal service, she could theoretically generate 310,000 pounds (140,000 kg) of steam per hour, at 925 pounds per square inch (6.38 MPa) and 975 °F (524 °C) using eight US Navy-type M-type boilers, however they were operated only at 54% of their capacity. The boilers were divided among two engine rooms, four in each. While they were designed by Babcock & Wilcox, the company only manufactured the boilers in the forward engine room. The rest were made by Foster-Wheeler and are located aft. [9] : 129, 132
Steam from the boilers turned four Westinghouse double-reduction geared turbines, each one connected to a shaft. Each turbine could generate approximately 60,000 shaft horsepower (shp), or 240,000 shp total. If at flank speed, initial designs estimated 266,800 shp from 1,100 °F (593 °C) steam at 1,145 pounds per square inch (7.89 MPa) could be generated. [9] : 17, 134
The turbines turned four shafts, each rotating a propeller 18 feet (5.5 metres) in diameter. Owing to the designers' previous military experience, each propeller was made to rotate efficiently in either direction, allowing the ship to efficiently move forward or backwards, and to limit cavitation and vibrations. A key secret of the design was that the two inboard propellers were five-bladed, while the outboard two had four. This aspect was one of the key concepts allowing for her high speed. [9] : 138–139
The maximum speed attained by United States is disputed, as it was once held as a military secret, [12] and complicated by the alleged leak of a top speed of 43 kn (80 km/h) attained after her first speed trial. [13] For example, The New York Times reported in 1968 that the ship could make 42 kn (78 km/h) at a maximum power output of 240,000 hp (180,000 kW). [14] Other sources, including a paper by John J. McMullen & Associates, placed the ship's highest possible sustained top speed at 35 kn (65 km/h). [15] The liner's top achieved speed was later revealed to be 38.32 kn (70.97 km/h), achieved on its full-power trial run on June 10, 1952. [16] [17]
The interiors were designed by Dorothy Marckwald and Anne Urquhart, the same designers behind the interiors of America. Their goal was to "create a modern fresh contemporary look that emphasized simplicity over palatial, [with] restrained elegance over glitz and glitter". [18] [19] An additional goal of the interiors was to replicate the smooth lines seen on the exterior and visualize the ship's speed. [9] : 93
To achieve the aesthetic, the liner was furnished in mid-century modern decor, amplified by plentiful use of black linoleum decking and the silver lining of edges. While visually unique compared to her competition, the simplicity of decorations compared to the expected grandeur of ocean liners saw the interiors described as what would be found on a 'navy transport' by those accustomed to the older style. [9] : 93
Interior décor also included a children's playroom designed by Edward Meshekoff. [20] He was also tasked with the challenge of creating interiors that were completely fireproof. This posed an exceptional difficulty when selecting materials, such as those for usually flammable items such as drapes or carpet. [9] : 93
As a result of various maritime disasters involving fire, including SS Morro Castle and SS Normandie, William Gibbs specified that the ship must be fully fire proof, which further compounded his history with safety and excruciating attention to detail. [21] [22]
To minimize the risk of flames, the designers of United States prescribed using no wood in the ship, aside from the galley's wooden butcher's block. Fittings, including all furniture and fabrics, were custom made in glass, metal, or fiberglass, to ensure compliance with fireproofing guidelines set by the Navy. Asbestos-laden paneling was used extensively in interior structures and many small items were made of aluminum. The ballroom's grand piano was originally designed to be aluminum, but was made from mahogany and accepted only after a demonstration in which gasoline was poured upon the wood and ignited, without the wood ever catching fire. [23] [24]
To create the onboard art, Marckwald was consulted by Hildreth Meière and Austin Purves. The artists' goals was to give the ship its own unique 'character' detached from any one style. As the ship was going to serve as a floating icon of the country, it was decided her 'character' would reflect the ship's namesake. This was achieved by theming spaces around an aspect of the United States, such as the Mississippi River, Native Americans, or American fauna. [25]
The liner was decorated by hundreds of unique art pieces, ranging from sculptures to relief murals and paintings. Aluminum was commonly incorporated into the artworks, allowing pieces to be light, fire proof, and match the black-and-silver color theme. For instance, nearly 200 aluminum sculptures were used in first class stairway, with a large eagle located on the landing of each deck joined by the bird and flower of each state. [9] : 93
The primary purpose of a ship's funnels is to ventilate the vessel's engine rooms, allowing exhaust to escape. Gibbs believed that funnels also serve to create a unique and iconic character for both the ship and her owners. To create an unforgettable silhouette, Gibbs had the liner topped off with two massive, red-white-and-blue, tear-dropped shaped funnels located midship. Standing at 55 feet (17 m) tall and 60 feet (18 m) wide a piece, they were the largest funnels ever put to sea. [1] : 246–248
The funnel design was a pinnacle of Gibb's experience from designing the Leviathan , America , and Santa-class liners. To prevent soot from the funnels from coating the deck and passengers, horizontal fins located on each side of the funnels deflected the pollutants away from the ship. During the retrofit of the Leviathan decades earlier, it was discovered that her tall funnels served to compromise the stability of the entire vessel. To avoid this issue on United States, Gibbs decided that the funnels and the entire superstructure would be made out of lightweight aluminum to prevent her from becoming top-heavy and at risk of capsizing. At the time, the ship was the world's largest aluminum construction project and the first major application of aluminum on a ship. [1] : 246–248
The main downside to making the funnels and superstructure out of aluminum was that it was extraordinarily hard to mold and handle compared to more conventional metals, making the funnels' fabrication the most complex part of her construction. In addition, special care was needed to prevent galvanic corrosion of the aluminum when welded to the steel decking. While shipyard workers were antagonized by the laborious progress, no problems arose during construction and progress continued as planned. [1] : 246–248
The design by Gibbs incorporated a conventional three-tiered class system for passengers, replicating those found on other classical ocean liners. Each class was segregated, having its own dining rooms, bars, public spaces, services, and recreation areas. Gibbs envisioned having passengers enforce the separation, only intermingling in the gymnasium, pool, and theater. [9] : 70 The stark and physical class separations, an idea associated with the old world, served in contrast to the overall American theme of the ocean liner as the United States was often seen as a nation removed from the old money and class distinctions of the Old World. [26]
At maximum capacity, the liner could have carried 894 first, 524 cabin, and 554 tourist-class passengers. [9] : 16 During a standard season, a first class ticket would start at $350 ($3,971 in 2024), a cabin ticket $220 ($2,496), and a tourist ticket $165 ($1,872). [27] : 138
Tour of first-class spaces in current status | |
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oYRofcGzi2w |
First Class passengers were entitled to the best services and locations the ship had to offer, including the grand ballroom, smoking room, first-class dining room, first-class restaurants, observation lounge, main foyer, grand staircase, and promenades. Most of these facilities were located midship, distant from the vibrations and distractions of both the engines and outside. [9] : 59, 64
The liner's famous passengers favored first class due to its prestige, priority service, and spacious cabins. Popularized by the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, the 'Duck Suite' was the most well known stateroom on board. It was created by combining three first-class staterooms into one singular suite, containing four beds, three bathrooms, two bedrooms and a living room. The name came from the walls, decorated with paintings of various waterfowl. Up to 14 similar suites could be created in a similar way, establishing a level of stateroom even above that a standard first class ticket would fetch. [9] : 59, 64 Tickets for the two-bedroom suites started at $930 ($10,552), aimed at the wealthiest passengers on board. Much like the 'Duck Suite', these rooms reflected a post-war American standard of living, lacking in intricate details and adorned with natural scenes. All suites were spacious and equipped with dimmed lights, items not seen on any other vessels. [1] : 262
Cabin class was aimed towards the middle class, striking a key balance between the affordability of tourist and the elegance of first class. Each cabin held four beds and a private bathroom, located primarily aft. While inferior to first class, passengers received service and had access to amenities historically reserved to the highest class on other ocean liners. [9] : 66–67 The food, pool, and theater were shared with first-class passengers, making cabin class ideal for those who wanted the first-class experience without paying first-class rates. [26]
The class was aimed at those who were unable or unwilling to spend much on a ticket, often booked by immigrants and students. [26] Cheapest of all tickets, spaces for the tourist class were tucked away to the peripheries of the ship where rocking and noise were most pronounced. These small cabins were shared among passengers, each room containing two bunk beds and simply furnished with little detail. Bathrooms were communal, shared among all tourist class passengers in the same passage. Service from the crew was lacking compared to the others, as this class received the lowest priority. While equivalent to the steerage or third-class on other vessels, these poorest conditions on the United States were noticeably better than what was offered on other vessels. [9] : 68, 70
Following the end of the Second World War, the newly formed US Department of Defense was at a crossroads about its policy in the nuclear age. Controversy of the issue peaked in regards to the supercarrier USS United States (CVA-58), who was ultimately canceled after her keel was laid. The shipyard, looking for a project to fill the void left by the Navy, then agreed to dismantle the aircraft carrier and build the ocean liner (name coincidental) in the same dry dock, [29] [30] allowing her keel to be laid on 8 February, 1950. The circumstance also saw her become the first ocean liner built in dry dock, accelerating her construction as parts of the ship could be prefabricated. [31] [27] : 100
Another major issue facing the Navy was its reduction of transport capabilities following the World War II. After the Inchon Landings during the Korean War, the Department of Defense realized it lacked troop transport capacity and requisitioned the 1/3rd complete United States to quickly and cheaply fill part of the deficit. Under Navy control, stateroom bathrooms were to be stripped and large spaces divided to make room for gun mounts, wardrooms, more lifeboats, and equipment required to support the enlarged passenger count. [1] : 240
The ship was requisitioned under Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson, who believed it was cheaper and easier to convert an existing vessel than it was to build one from scratch. Days after the announcement was made, the secretary was relieved and replaced by George Marshall. After meeting with the Chairman of the Maritime Administration, Marshall believed that converting United States would take too long to be of any use during the Korean War. A month after her requisitioning was announced, the Joint Chiefs of Staff reversed the decision and returned her to previously scheduled civilian work. [1] : 241
Months later, she was both christened and launched on 23 June, 1951. [27] : 100
Her construction was a joint effort by the United States Navy and United States Lines (USL), and was broken into two parts. The cost of her construction was split, with USL contributing 25 million and the US government 20 million. However, the government also paid an additional 25 million for the incorporation of 'national defense features' into her design, which brought her cost to a total of 71.08 million, even though the ship itself was only 44.4 million. [1] : 227
On her maiden voyage—July 3–7, 1952 —United States broke the eastbound transatlantic speed record that was held by RMS Queen Mary for the previous 14 years by more than 10 hours, making the maiden crossing from the Ambrose lightship at New York Harbor to Bishop Rock off Cornwall, UK in 3 days, 10 hours, 40 minutes at an average speed of 35.59 kn (65.91 km/h; 40.96 mph), [32] thus winning the coveted Blue Riband. [33] On her return voyage United States also broke the westbound transatlantic speed record, also held by Queen Mary, by returning to America in 3 days 12 hours and 12 minutes at an average speed of 34.51 kn (63.91 km/h; 39.71 mph). In New York City her owners were awarded the Hales Trophy, the tangible expression of the Blue Riband competition. [34]
Her return to the United States was marked with celebration as she was escorted into New York City by bands, helicopters, dozens of small boats and met by a crowd of thousands. As a public symbol of the Blue Ribband, a long blue flag was flown from her radar mast as she approached. Many also noticed that her freshly painted hull paint was worn off, apparently from the high speeds she traveled at. [35]
The record was not a reflection of her actual operational speed. Prior to her voyage, many expected a 'race' between the American United States and British Queen Elizabeth for national pride over the Blue Riband. In 1951, Gibbs instructed the crew to, "[Not] beat the record by very much. Beat it by a reasonable amount, such as 32 knots." He hoped that Cunard Line, operator of Queen Elizabeth, would then develop a slightly faster ship. United States would then soundly beat the intentionally low record, sailing at a much higher speed. [36]
Her record breaking speed was also held back by safety concerns. The line understood that the crew was still inexperienced with their new ship, and ordered them to not take unnecessary risk with extravagant speeds. The memory of Titanic influenced USL's caution, an issue personal to several of its leaders. CEO John Franklin was son of White Star Line's office manager Philip Franklin during the disaster, and company director Vincent Astor lost his father on the ship. So concerned about a potential accident, Franklin had pre-written and sealed a message that was only to be made public if there was a disaster during her voyage. [36] For her regular service, the ship operated at her operational speed (about 30-32 knots) so that the ship could maintain a schedule of 5-night crossings. [35]
During the 1950s and early 1960s, United States was popular for transatlantic travel, sailing between New York, Southampton and Le Havre, with an occasional additional call at Bremerhaven. [37] She attracted frequent repeat celebrity passengers such as Marilyn Monroe, Judy Garland, Cary Grant, Salvador Dalí, Duke Ellington, and Walt Disney, who featured the ship in the 1962 film Bon Voyage! . [38] An unrecognized celebrity on the ship was Claude Jones, a trombonist who had performed with Ellington. He worked as part of the waitstaff and died on board in 1962. [39]
United States proved exceedingly well as the most popular liner in the North Atlantic, as the ship's fame provided her with a reliable clientele. Such a success, United States Lines (USL) began drafting plans to crate a 'running mate' for the ship. Much like Cunard Line's Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth , the idea was to operate two liners in tandem with each other. In 1958, this idea eventually evolved into the SS President Washington, a superliner with a very similar design to United States. President Washington was planned to replacing the aging USL liner America , and was to instead operate on the American West Coast and sail the Pacific. However, the idea failed to fruition as Congress did not allocate any funds to the project. [40] : 169–170
For the first time ever in 1957, piston-powered aircraft carried more passengers across the Atlantic than ocean liners. This trend escalated over the next several years as the advent of jet-propelled airliners provided trans-Atlantic routes that were only hours long, compared to days on the fastest ocean liners. The competition threatened to redirect the customers of USL and other shipping conglomerates, even as the economic threat of aircraft was initially brushed off as a 'fad'. [40] : 167–169
Throughout the 1960s, the liner's reputation was permanently altered during strikes by the Masters, Mates, and Pilots Union. The strikes forced the cancellation of voyages and the reassignment of passengers. A ticket no longer guaranteed a trip aboard, and both passengers and the company began to grow weary of the spotty service. [40] : 170
Together, the cancellations and competition from airlines slowly drew away customers. In 1960, USL refused to release their yearly passenger count, due to how low it had become. The issue further compounded in 1961, when the US Department of Commerce announced the ship would no longer be used to carry US military personnel or their families. It was believed that liners were, "Sitting ducks for Soviet bombers" and that air transport was the better option. The loss of the contract was a major blow to the company, and the stark decline in ridership made it clear change was needed. [40] : 171
To increase ticket sales, USL set out to convert the liner America to a cruise ship, dropping trans-Atlantic service for vacation spots around North America. Similar plans were drafted for United States, with her operating as a cruise ship during the less busy winter seasons. To facilitate her new role, she was to have her cabin-class lounge replaced by a swimming pool and every stateroom fitted with a bathroom to attract vacationers. However, the cash-strapped company was weary of any new projects and soon dropped the idea, as the refit was priced at $15 million. Nevertheless, the new corporate strategy was joined by a major advertisement campaign. These ads were aimed at reinventing the allure of ocean liners in the age of jet aircraft by showing off the speed, luxury, reputation, or another aspect of United States. [40] : 171
By 1961, conditions had not improved. For the first time, a voyage was canceled as only 350 people bought tickets. The US Government was subsidizing USL under the condition that trans-Atlantic service must be maintained, no matter the profitability. After enough pressure from the company, the rule was repealed. With USL now able to set unique itineraries, and hoping to cash into a new market, United States made her first cruises in the Caribbean the next year. These vacations sailed from New York and docked in Nassau, St. Thomas, Trinidad, Curaçao, and Cristobal. She was the largest ship in the region and operated with a temporary pool on her aft deck and no tourist-class passengers. [40] : 172–173
Despite the new itinerary, she was the most expensive liner to operate and was further losing passengers to newer ships such as France . By 1963, anxiety about her future reached crew members and corporate leaders alike, with many unsure of how long the ship would be left in service. Two years later, another strike forced the cancellation of all summer voyages, losing the ship 9,000 passengers and the company $3 million. [40] : 178–179
In 1968, the Atlantic liner routes were dying, with only United States, France, and Queen Elizabeth conducting sailings. To distinguish herself from the competition, she began offering much longer voyages to distant ports in Europe, Africa, and South America. She once again became the most popular ship in the Atlantic, but USL was bought out in 1968. Her new owner was Walter Kidd & Co, who believed the age of ocean liners had passed. Making matters worse, government subsidies for the ship were curtailed as there were not enough passengers to justify the cost. [40] : 175–177
Throughout her service, the liner regularly brought in between 16 and 20 million dollars, however her expenses ballooned from an initial 18 million to a total of 26 million. In one of her first years of operation, she made USL a profit of 3 million; in 1960, she began running at a 2 million dollar loss, and by the 1968 fiscal year, she cost her line 4 million despite stable revenue. [41]
Due to strike-related costs and union dues increasing, government subsidies decreasing, a rise in alleged corporate mismanagement, and general passenger disinterest, the ship was overdue for retirement. On 25 October, United States returned from her 400th voyage. After arriving, she was ordered to start a scheduled yearly overhaul in Newport News early. This move canceled a planned 21-day cruise, although bookings were still being made for future voyages. [40] : 178–179
After her last voyage, she sailed to Newport News for a scheduled annual overhaul. While there, USL announced a surprise decision to withdraw her from service on November 11. The ship was sealed up, with all furniture, fittings, and crew uniforms left in place. Her funnels were left half-painted when work suddenly halted, which can still be seen today. [22] While many saw her layup as a looming inevitability, the decision came as a shock to passengers and crew. With no warning, newly unemployed crewmembers had only days to finalize work while passengers' awaiting baggage was loaded onto the Leonardo Da Vinci for a new cruise. [40] : 184–185
In June 1970, the ship was relocated across the James River to the Norfolk International Terminal in Norfolk, Virginia. In 1973, USL transferred ownership of the vessel to the United States Maritime Administration. In 1976, Norwegian Caribbean Cruise Line (NCL) was reported to be interested in purchasing the ship and converting her into a Caribbean cruise ship, but the U.S. Maritime Administration refused the sale due to the classified naval design elements of the ship, forcing NCL to purchase the former France instead. The Navy finally declassified the ship's design features in 1977. [22]
The same year, a group headed by Harry Katz sought to purchase the ship and dock her in Atlantic City, New Jersey, for use as a hotel and casino. However, nothing came of the plan. [42] By 1978, the Maritime Administration deemed the ship as worthless to the government, and allowed her to be sold. [1] : 363
By the 1970s, the US Navy had retired all of its hospital ships. The now-laid up United States was studied for potential conversion in 1983 as her size and speed would allow her to rapidly deploy to address any crisis around the world. Under the name USNS United States, it was planned that she would have a capacity of about 1,600 hospital beds, be fitted with an aft helicopter deck, a bow vertical replenishment deck, and a refurbished interior that would have included up to 23 operating theaters and a full set of specialist rooms comparable to any major hospital on land. The plan was spearheaded by the Department of Defense, who wished that she would be based in the Indian Ocean. However, the Navy believed the plan was too expensive and impractical, opting to take no action on the matter. [40] : 194–196
In 1980, the vessel was sold for $7 million to a group headed by Seattle developer Richard H. Hadley, who hoped to revitalize the liner in a floating condominium. Under Hadley's ownership, the ship was neglected and her interiors become thoroughly ruined with rust. [1] : 363
In 1984, to pay creditors, the ship's fittings and furniture, which had been left in place since 1969, were sold at auction in Norfolk, Virginia. After a week-long auction between the 8th and 14 October 1984, about 3,000 bidders paid $1.65 million for objects from the ship. [43]
On March 4, 1989, the vessel was relocated, and was towed across Hampton Roads to the CSX coal pier in Newport News. [44]
Richard Hadley's plan of a time-share style cruise ship eventually failed financially, and the ship, which had been seized by US marshals, was put up for auction by the U.S. Maritime Administration on April 27, 1992. At auction, Marmara Marine Inc purchased the ship for $2.6 million. [45] [46] The company planned to have the ship refurbished and run alongside the lone Queen Elizabeth 2 as a continuation of transatlantic service. [1] : 363
On June 4, 1992, she was towed to Ukraine. In Sevastopol Shipyard, the liner underwent asbestos removal which lasted from 1993 to 1994. [47] There, the interior of the ship was almost completely stripped down to the bulkheads. The open lifeboats, which would have violated SOLAS regulations if the ship sailed again, were removed alongside their davits. In the US, no plans were finalized for re-purposing the vessel, and in June 1996, she was towed back across the Atlantic to southern Philadelphia. [48] Marmara Marine's plan fell through and the company went bankrupt, leaving the ship without an owner and abandoned. [1] : 363
In November 1997, Edward Cantor[ who? ] purchased the ship for $6 million. [49] Two years later, the SS United States Foundation and the SS United States Conservancy (then known as the SS United States Preservation Society, Inc.) succeeded in having the ship placed on the National Register of Historic Places. [10]
In 2003, Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL) purchased the ship at auction from Cantor's estate after his death. NCL's intent was to restore the ship to service for NCL America, a newly announced American-flagged Hawaiian passenger service. United States was one of the few ships eligible to enter such service because of the Passenger Service Act, which requires that any vessel engaged in domestic commerce be built and flagged in the U.S. and operated by a predominantly American crew. [50] NCL began an extensive technical review in late 2003 which determined that the ship was in sound condition, and cataloged over 100 boxes of the ship's blueprints. [51] In August 2004, NCL commenced feasibility studies regarding retrofitting the vessel, and in 2006, company owner Tan Sri Lim Kok Thay stated that United States would be retrofitted. [52]
By 2009, NCL changed its tone towards the ship. She cost the company about $800,000 yearly to keep afloat, and was made redundant once Pride of America, Pride of Aloha, and Pride of Hawaii started operating for NCL America. The company then began taking bids for her scrapping. [53] [54] [55]
The SS United States Conservancy was created in 2009 to try to save the ship by raising funds to purchase her. [56] On July 30, 2009, H. F. Lenfest, a Philadelphia media entrepreneur and philanthropist, pledged a matching grant of $300,000 to help the Conservancy purchase the vessel from NCL's parent company. [57] While Lenfest did not see the project as economically feasible, he was sympathetic to the ship as his father was one of the naval architects who helped build her, and himself was a US Navy captain. [1] : 374 Former US president Bill Clinton also endorsed rescue efforts to save the ship, having sailed on her himself in 1968. [58] [59]
In November 2010, the Conservancy announced a plan to develop a "multi-purpose waterfront complex" with hotels, restaurants, and a casino along the Delaware River in South Philadelphia at the proposed location of the stalled Foxwoods Casino project. A detailed study of the site was revealed in late November 2010 in tandem with a plan aimed at Harrah's Entertainment taking over the project. However, the deal collapsed in December when the state Gaming Control Board voted to revoke the casino's license. [60]
The Conservancy bought United States from NCL in February 2011 for a reported $3 million with Lenfest's assistance. [61] The group had funds to last 20 months that went to de-toxification and plans to make the ship financially independent, possibly as a hotel or other development project. [62] [63] Conservancy executive director Dan McSweeney stated that possible locations for the ship included Philadelphia, New York City, and Miami. [62] [64]
The Conservancy assumed ownership of United States on February 1, 2011. [65] [66] Talks about where to locate the ship lasted months. In New York City, negotiations with a developer were underway for the ship to become part of Vision 2020, a waterfront redevelopment plan costing $3.3 billion. In Miami, Ocean Group was interested in putting the ship in a slip on the north side of American Airlines Arena. [67] With an additional $5.8 million donation from Lenfest, the Conservancy had about 18 months from March 2011 to make the ship a public attraction. [67] On August 5, 2011, the Conservancy announced that after several studies, Philadelphia was, "Not likely to work there for a variety of reasons". However, discussions to locate the ship at her original home port of New York, as a stationary attraction, were ongoing. [68] The Conservancy's grant specifies that the refit and restoration must be done in the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for the benefit of the Philadelphia economy, regardless of her eventual mooring site.
On February 7, 2012, preliminary work began on restoration to prepare the ship for a complete reconstruction, although a contract had not yet been signed. [69] In July 2012, the Conservancy launched a new online campaign called "Save the United States" - a blend of social networking and micro-fundraising that allowed donors to sponsor square inches of a virtual ship for redevelopment while allowing them to upload photos and stories about their experience with the ship. The Conservancy announced that donors to the virtual ship would be featured in an interactive "Wall of Honor" aboard the future SS United States museum. [70] [71]
By the end of 2012, a developer was to be chosen, who was to put the ship in a selected city by 2013. [72] In November, she underwent a months-long "below-the-deck" makeover in order to make the ship more appealing to developers as an attraction. The Conservancy was warned that if its plans were not realized quickly, the ship may be scrapped. [73] In January 2014, obsolete pieces of the ship were sold to keep up with $80,000-a-month maintenance costs. Enough money was raised to keep the ship going for another six months, with the hope of finding someone committed to the project, with New York City still being the most likely location. [74]
In August, the ship was still moored in Philadelphia and costs for the ship's rent amounted to $60,000 a month. It was estimated that it would take $1 billion to return United States to service, although a 2016 estimate for restoration as a luxury cruise ship placed the most at only $700 million. [75] [76] On September 4, 2014, a final push was made to have the ship bound for New York City. A developer interested in re-purposing the ship as a major waterfront destination made an announcement regarding the move. The Conservancy had only weeks to decide if the ship needed to be sold for scrap. [77] On December 15, 2014, preliminary agreements in support of the redevelopment of United States were announced. The agreements included providing three months of carrying costs, with a timeline and more details to be released sometime in 2015. [78] [79] In February 2015, another $250,000 was received by the Conservancy from an anonymous donor towards planning an onboard museum. [80]
In October 2015, the Conservancy explored potential bids to scrap her, as the group began to exhaust funds. Attempts to re-purpose the ship continued. Ideas included using the ship for hotels, restaurants, or office space. One idea was to install computer servers in the lower decks and link them to software development businesses in office space on the upper decks. However, no firm plans were announced. The Conservancy said that if no progress was made by October 31, 2015, they would have no choice but to sell the ship to a "responsible recycler". [81] As the deadline passed it was announced that $100,000 had been raised in October 2015, sparing the ship from immediate danger. By November 23, 2015, it was reported that over $600,000 in donations had been received for care and upkeep, buying time well into the coming year for the Conservancy to press ahead with a plan to redevelop the vessel. [82]
On February 4, 2016, Crystal Cruises announced that it had signed a purchase option for United States. Crystal covered docking costs for nine months while it conducted a feasibility study on returning the ship to service as a cruise ship based in New York City. [83] [84] On April 9, 2016, it was announced that 600 artifacts from United States would be returned to the ship from the Mariners' Museum and other donors. [85]
On August 5, 2016, the plan was formally dropped, with Crystal Cruises citing many technical and commercial challenges. The cruise line made a donation of $350,000 to help preservation effort through the end of the year. [86] [87] [88] The Conservancy continued to receive donations, which included one for $150,000 by cruise industry executive Jim Pollin. [7] In January 2018, the Conservancy made an appeal to US president Donald Trump to take action. [89] If the group runs out of money, alternative plans for the ship include sinking her as an artificial reef rather than scrapping her were made. [7]
On September 20, 2018, the Conservancy consulted with Damen Ship Repair & Conversion about redevelopment of United States. Damen had previously converted the former ocean liner and cruise ship SS Rotterdam into a hotel and mixed-use development. [90]
On December 10, 2018, the Conservancy announced an agreement with the commercial real estate firm RXR Realty to explore options for restoring and redeveloping the ocean liner. [91] The Conservancy requires that any redevelopment plan must preserve the ship's profile and exterior design, and include approximately 25,000 sq ft (2,323 m2) for an onboard museum. [90] RXR's press release about United States stated that multiple locations would be considered, depending on the viability of restoration plans. [91] [92]
In March 2020, RXR Realty announced its plans to repurpose the ocean liner as a permanently-moored 600,000 sq ft (55,740 m2) "hospitality and cultural space" and requested expressions of interest from a number of major US waterfront cities including Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Miami, Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego. [93]
In 2023, a more detailed plan for her redevelopment was released by RXR Realty and MCR Hotels. According to this plan, the ship would serve as a 1,000 room hotel, museum, event venue, public park, and a dining location. New York City was highlighted as the best location for the ship, ideally along the Hudson River and moored to a specially built pier. New York City was selected as the best location due to existing infrastructure and the nearby Javits Convention Center. [94]
The 2023 plan also included several rendered images of the redesigned United States. These images depict the ship docked along Manhattan's West Side at a public pier located in the Hudson River Park. In addition, aspects of the hotel were depicted. A key element of the hotel would be one of the ship's funnels, with the top removed and exposed to the sky. This would act as a skylight, illuminating the hotel and event spaces. In addition, the plan also consist of hotel rooms held in the lifeboat davits, a pool between the funnels, and an aft mix interior-exterior ballroom to provide spaces for both hotel and venue operations. [94]
Philadelphia's Pier 82, where the ship is located, is owned by the company Penn Warehouses. In 2021, Penn Warehouses increased the ship's rent from $850 to $1700 per day, requested $160,000 in back rent, and terminated the contract with the Conservancy. The company stated the change was due to the United States slowly damaging the pier and the Conservancy refusing to maintain a previous agreement to cover possible damages. [95] [96]
The Conservancy responded by stating the rent hike violated an agreement made in 2011, and refused to pay. They accused their landlord of illegally wanting to oust the ship so that the pier could be used for more profitable activities. This led to both groups suing each other. [96]
A civil trial took place in federal court from January 17–18, 2024. Judge Anita Brody issued a final judgment on June 14. [97] She dismissed Penn Warehouse's financial demands, but found that because the 2011 berthing agreement was of indefinite duration, it was terminable at will by either party upon reasonable notice. Consequently, she ordered the ship to be removed within 90 days (by September 12). [97] With such a tight deadline, the Conservancy is unsure how the liner can be moved or where it would go. [98] [99] [100] Six days later, the Conservancy began a new donation drive and requested $500,000 to help relocate her. [101]
As of October, the Conservancy stated that in addition to necessary surveys, tugboats, insurance, and other preparations, the 2024 Atlantic hurricane season complicates efforts to relocate the ship before the deadline. However, the main difficulty finding a port willing to host the ship. However, Judge Brody is open to negotiations and a later date of removal if a plan is presented. [102] [103]
On 30 August, Florida's Okaloosa County announced that they will buy the ship and sink her as the world's largest artificial reef off Destin-Fort Walton Beach at a cost of $1 million. The county has identified several locations close to the shore, hoping tourism and diving expeditions would bring in revenue to pay off the project. The county also sunk the aircraft carrier USS Oriskany as part of a similar plan, believing the two ships would work in tandem to attract visitors. [104]
The Conservancy clarified the same day that the agreement with Okaloosa County was a contingent contract and would only proceed if the Conservancy has no other options to keep the ship afloat. However, it would go through should no other alternatives be found before the eviction deadline. [105]
Below are several photos on the ship taken in 2024.
The Mariners' Museum of Newport News holds many objects from United States, including Expressions of Freedom by Gwen Lux, an aluminum sculpture from the main dining room that was purchased during the 1984 auction. [43]
Artwork designed by Charles Gilbert — including glass panels etched with sea creatures and plants from the first-class ballroom — were purchased by Celebrity Cruises and was incorporated on board the Infinity in her United States-themed restaurant. [106] Other onboard memorabilia, including original porcelain and a ship model, were moved to the entrance of the ship's casino in 2015. [107] [108]
At the National Museum of American History, mural The Current by Raymond John Wendell is on display. [109] Two works by Hildreth Meière—murals Mississippi and Father of Waters—were also brought to the museum and are not on display. [25]
One of the five-bladed propellers is mounted at Pier 76 in New York City, while the other is mounted outside the American Merchant Marine Museum on the grounds of the United States Merchant Marine Academy in Kings Point, New York. The starboard-side five-bladed propeller is mounted near the waterfront at SUNY Maritime College in Fort Schuyler, New York, while the port side is at the entrance of the Mariner's Museum in Newport News, Virginia, mounted on an original 63 ft (19 m) long drive shaft. [110]
The ship's bell is kept in the clock tower on the campus of Christopher Newport University in Newport News, Virginia. It is used to celebrate special events, including being rung by incoming freshman and by outgoing graduates. [111]
One of the ship's horns stood on display for decades above a hardware store in Revere, Massachusetts, and has since been sold to a private collector in Texas for $8,000 in 2017. [112]
A large collection of dining room furniture and other memorabilia that had been purchased during the 1984 auction, and incorporated at the Windmill Point Restaurant in Nags Head, North Carolina. Following the restaurant's closing, the items were donated Mariners' Museum and Christopher Newport University in 2007. [113]
With both the eastbound and westbound speed records, SS United States obtained the Blue Riband which marked the first time a US-flagged ship had held the record since SS Baltic claimed the prize 100 years earlier. United States maintained a 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) crossing speed on the North Atlantic in a service career that lasted 17 years. The ship remained unchallenged for the Blue Riband throughout her career. During this period the fast trans-Atlantic passenger trade moved to air travel, and many regard the story of the Blue Riband as having ended with United States. [114]
Her east-bound record has since been broken several times (first in 1986, by Virgin Atlantic Challenger II), and her west-bound record was broken in 1990 by Destriero , but these vessels were not passenger-carrying ocean liners. The Hales Trophy was lost in 1990 to Hoverspeed Great Britain , who set a new eastbound speed record for a commercial vessel. [115]
Due to her association with luxury and fame, several movies have featured the ship prominently during her time in and out of service. She is a major plot point in films such as 1953's Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, 1955's Gentlemen Marry Brunettes and 1962's Bon Voyage! [116] [117] More recently, she was used as a set and featured in the 2013 thriller Dead Man Down while docked in Philadelphia. [118] Numerous documentaries have been made about the ship itself, such as SS United States: Lady in Waiting, SS United States: Made in America, and The SS United States: From Dream to Reality. [119] [120] [121] She also appears in the opening sequence of the 1961 film adaptation of West Side Story. [122]
Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was a German transatlantic ocean liner in service from 1897 to 1914, when she was scuttled in battle. She was the largest ship in the world for a time, and held the Blue Riband until Cunard Line’s RMS Lusitania entered service in 1907. The vessel’s career was relatively uneventful, despite a refit in 1913.
The Cunard Line is a British shipping and cruise line based at Carnival House at Southampton, England, operated by Carnival UK and owned by Carnival Corporation & plc. Since 2011, Cunard and its four ships have been registered in Hamilton, Bermuda.
The Blue Riband is an unofficial accolade given to the passenger liner crossing the Atlantic Ocean in regular service with the record highest average speed. The term was borrowed from horse racing and was not widely used until after 1910. The record is based on average speed rather than passage time because ships follow different routes. Also, eastbound and westbound speed records are reckoned separately, as the more difficult westbound record voyage, against the Gulf Stream and the prevailing weather systems, typically results in lower average speeds.
An ocean liner is a type of passenger ship primarily used for transportation across seas or oceans. Ocean liners may also carry cargo or mail, and may sometimes be used for other purposes. The Queen Mary 2 is the only ocean liner still in service to this day.
United States Lines was the trade name of an organization of the United States Shipping Board's (USSB) Emergency Fleet Corporation (EFC), created to operate German liners seized by the United States in 1917. The ships were owned by the USSB and all finances of the line were controlled by the EFC. Among the notable ships of this period was Leviathan, a contender for largest ship in the world for a time.
Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL) is an American cruise line founded in Norway in 1966, incorporated in the Bahamas and headquartered in Miami. It is the fourth-largest cruise line in the world by passengers, controlling about 8.6% of the total worldwide share of the cruise market by passengers as of 2021. It is wholly owned by parent company Norwegian Cruise Line Holdings.
SS Europa, later SS Liberté IMO 5607332, was a German ocean liner built for the Norddeutsche Lloyd line (NDL) to work the transatlantic sea route. Launched in 1928, she and her sister ship, Bremen, were the two most advanced, high-speed steam turbine ocean vessels in their day, with both earning the Blue Riband.
SS France was a Compagnie Générale Transatlantique ocean liner, constructed by the Chantiers de l'Atlantique shipyard at Saint-Nazaire, France, and put into service in February 1962. At the time of her construction in 1960, the 316 m (1,037 ft) vessel was the longest passenger ship ever built, a record that remained unchallenged until the construction of the 345 m (1,132 ft) RMS Queen Mary 2 in 2004.
SS Deutschland was a passenger liner built in Stettin and launched on 10 January 1900 for the Hamburg America Line (HAPAG) of Germany. She was officially the second ocean liner to have four funnels on the transatlantic route, the first being Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse of 1897.
City of Paris, was a British-built passenger liner of the Inman Line that held the Blue Riband as the fastest ship on the north Atlantic route from 1889 to 1891 and again from 1892 to 1893. A sister ship of the City of New York and a rival of the White Star Line Teutonic and Majestic, she proved to be the quickest of the pre-Campania twin-screw express liners. In 1893, she was renamed Paris and transferred to US registry when the Inman Line was merged into the American Line. She and her sister were paired with the new American built St Louis and St Paul to form one of the premier Atlantic services. Paris served the US Navy as the auxiliary cruiser USS Yale during the Spanish–American War and is remembered for slipping into the harbor at San Juan, Puerto Rico, under the Spanish guns of Morro Castle. After Paris returned to commercial service, she was seriously damaged in 1899 when she grounded on The Manacles off the British coast. Rebuilt and renamed Philadelphia, she sailed for the American Line until requisitioned again during World War I as the transport Harrisburg. After the war, she continued with the American Line until 1920 and was scrapped in 1923.
The Inman Line was one of the three largest 19th-century British passenger shipping companies on the North Atlantic, along with the White Star Line and Cunard Line. Founded in 1850, it was absorbed in 1893 into American Line. The firm's formal name for much of its history was the Liverpool, Philadelphia and New York Steamship Company, but it was also variously known as the Liverpool and Philadelphia Steamship Company, as Inman Steamship Company, Limited, and, in the last few years before absorption, as the Inman and International Steamship Company.
SS Vaterland was a transatlantic ocean liner that was launched for the Hamburg America Line in 1940 but left incomplete because of the Second World War. An Allied air raid damaged her in 1943, and she was scrapped in 1948.
SS Abyssinia was a British mail liner built in 1870, and originally operated by the Cunard Line on the Liverpool–New York route. She later served the Guion Line on the same route and the Canadian Pacific Line in the Pacific. In December 1891, Abyssinia was destroyed mid-Atlantic without loss of life by a fire that started in her cargo of cotton, highlighting the danger in carrying both cotton and passengers on the same ship.
William Francis Gibbs was an American naval architect of the mid-twentieth century.
Scotia was a British passenger liner operated by the Cunard Line that won the Blue Riband in 1863 for the fastest westbound transatlantic voyage. She was the last oceangoing paddle steamer, and as late as 1874 she made Cunard's second fastest voyage. Laid up in 1876, Scotia was converted to a twin-screw cable layer in 1879. She served in her new role for twenty-five years until she was wrecked off of Guam in March 1904.
Persia was a British passenger liner operated by the Cunard Line that won the Blue Riband in 1856 for the fastest westbound transatlantic voyage. She was the first Atlantic record breaker constructed of iron and was the largest ship in the world at the time of her launch. However, the inefficiencies of paddle wheel propulsion rendered Persia obsolete and she was taken out of service in 1868 after only twelve years. Attempts to convert Persia to sail were unsuccessful and the former pride of the British merchant marine was scrapped in 1872.
The America class was the replacement for the Britannia class, the Cunard Line's initial fleet of wooden paddle steamers. Entering service starting in 1848, these six vessels permitted Cunard to double its schedule to weekly departures from Liverpool, with alternating sailings to New York. The new ships were also designed to meet new competition from the United States.
The first RMS Saxonia was a passenger ship of the British Cunard Line. Between 1900 and 1925, Saxonia operated on North Atlantic and Mediterranean passenger routes, and she saw military service during World War I (1914–1918).
The Kaiser-class ocean liners or Kaiserklasse refer to four transatlantic ocean liners of the Norddeutscher Lloyd, a German shipping company. Built by the AG Vulcan Stettin between 1897 and 1907, these ships were designed to be among the largest and best appointed liners of their day. These four ships, two of which held the prestigious Blue Riband, were known as the "four flyers" and all proved to be popular with wealthy transatlantic travellers. They also took great advantage of the masses of emigrants who wished to leave Europe.
Augusta Victoria, later Auguste Victoria, placed in service in 1889 and named for Empress Augusta Victoria, wife of German Emperor Wilhelm II, was the name ship of the Augusta Victoria series and the first of a new generation of luxury Hamburg America Line ocean liners. She was the first liner built in continental Europe with twin propellers and when first placed in service, the fastest liner in the Atlantic trade. In 1897, the ship was rebuilt and lengthened and in 1904 she was sold to the Imperial Russian Navy, which renamed her Kuban.
The decision to unclassify the superior military qualities of the big ship revealed, among other things, that her propulsion plants developed 240,000 horsepower – nearly 100,000 horses more than the world's biggest liners – and that she could make 42 knots, or better than 48 land-miles an hour.
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