Quantum mechanics is the study of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atomic and subatomic particles. By contrast, classical physics explains matter and energy only on a scale familiar to human experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies such as the moon. Classical physics is still used in much of modern science and technology. However, towards the end of the 19th century, scientists discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small (micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain.[1] The desire to resolve inconsistencies between observed phenomena and classical theory led to a revolution in physics, a shift in the original scientific paradigm:[2] the development of quantum mechanics.
Many aspects of quantum mechanics are counterintuitive[3] and can seem paradoxical because they describe behavior quite different from that seen at larger scales. In the words of quantum physicist Richard Feynman, quantum mechanics deals with "nature as She is—absurd".[4] Features of quantum mechanics often defy simple explanations in everyday language. One example of this is the uncertainty principle: precise measurements of position cannot be combined with precise measurements of velocity. Another example is entanglement. In certain circumstances, two particles with a shared history may become mutually 'entangled', in which case a measurement made on one particle (such as an electron that is measured to have spin up) will be statistically correlated with the outcome of an equivalent measurement on the other particle (that the other will be more likely to be found to have spin down). This applies even though the particles may be so far apart that it is impossible for the result of the first measurement to have been transmitted to the second particle before the second measurement takes place.
Quantum mechanics helps us understand chemistry, because it explains how atoms interact with each other and form molecules. Many remarkable phenomena can be explained using quantum mechanics, like superfluidity. Liquid helium in a container, cooled to a temperature near absolute zero spontaneously flows up and over the rim of its container, an effect which cannot be explained by classical physics.
Maxwell's unification of electricity, magnetism, and light in the 1880s led to experiments on the interaction of light and matter. Some of these experiments had aspects which could not be explained. Quantum mechanics emerged in the early part of the 20th century from efforts to explain these results.[5]
The seeds of the quantum revolution appear in the discovery by JJ Thomson in 1897 that cathode rays were not continuous but "corpuscles" now called electrons. Electrons had been named just six years earlier as part of the emerging theory of atoms. In 1900, Max Planck, a conservative physicist unconvinced by the atomic theory, discovered that he needed discrete entities like atoms or electrons to explain Black-body radiation.[6]
Blackbody radiation intensity vs color and temperature. The rainbow bar represents visible light; 5000K objects are "white hot" by mixing differing colors of visible light. To the right is the invisible infrared. Classical theory (black curve for 5000K) fails; the other curves are correct predicted by quantum theories.
Hot objects radiate heat; very hot objects – red hot, white hot objects – all look similar when heated to the same temperature. This temperature dependent "look" results from a common curve of light intensity at different frequencies (colors). The common curve is called black-body radiation. The lowest frequencies are invisible heat rays – infrared light. White hot objects have intensity across many colors in the visible range. Continuous wave theories of light and matter cannot explain the black-body radiation curve. Planck spread the heat energy among individual "oscillators" of an undefined character but with discrete energy capacity: the black-body radiation behavior was then predicted by this model.
At the time, electrons, atoms, and discrete oscillators were all exotic ideas to explain exotic phenomena. But in 1905 Albert Einstein proposed that light was also corpuscular, consisting of "energy quanta", seemingly in contradiction to the established science of light as a continuous wave, stretching back a hundred years to Thomas Young's work on diffraction.
His revolutionary proposal started by reanalyzing Planck black-body theory, arriving at the same conclusions by using the new "energy quanta". Einstein then showed how energy quanta connected to JJ Thomson's electron. In 1902, Philipp Lenard directed light from an arc lamp onto freshly cleaned metal plates housed in an evacuated glass tube. He measured the electric current coming off the metal plate, for higher and lower intensity of light and for different metals. This is the photoelectric effect. Lenard showed that amount of current – the number of electrons – depended on the intensity of the light, but that the velocity of these electrons did not depend on intensity. The continuous wave theories of the time would predict that more light intensity would accelerate the same amount of current to higher velocity contrary to experiment. Einstein's energy quanta explained the volume increase: one electron is ejected for each quantum: more quanta mean more electrons.[6]:23
Einstein then predicted that the electron velocity would increase in direct proportion to the light frequency above a fixed value that depended upon the metal. Here the idea is that energy in energy-quanta depends upon the light frequency; the energy transferred to the electron comes in proportion to the light frequency. The type of metal gives a barrier, the fixed value, that the electrons must climb over to exit their atoms, to be emitted from the metal surface and be measured.
Ten years elapsed before Millikan's definitive experiment[7] verified Einstein's prediction. During that time many scientists rejected the revolutionary idea of quanta.[8] But Planck's and Einstein's concept was in the air and soon began to affect other physics and quantam theories.
Experiments with light and matter in the late 1800s uncovered a reproducible but puzzling regularity. When light was shown through purified gasses, certain frequencies (colors) did not pass. These dark absorption 'lines' followed a distinctive pattern: the gaps between the lines decreased steadily. By 1889, the Rydberg formula predicted the lines for hydrogen gas using only a constant number and the integers to index the lines.[5]:v1:376 The origin of this regularity was unknown. Solving this mystery would eventually become the first major step toward quantum mechanics.
Throughout the 19th century evidence grew for the atomic nature of matter. With JJ Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, scientist began the search for a model of the interior of the atom. Thomson proposed negative electrons swimming in a pool of positive charge. Between 1908 and 1911, Rutherford showed that the positive part was only 1/3000th of the diameter of the atom.[6]:26
Models of "planetary" electrons orbiting a nuclear "Sun" were proposed, but cannot explain why the electron does not simply fall into the positive charge. In 1913 Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford connected the new atom models to the mystery of the Rydberg formula: the orbital radius of the electrons were constrained and the resulting energy differences matched the energy differences in the absorption lines. This meant that absorption and emission of light from atoms was energy quantized: only specific energies that matched the difference in orbital energy would be emitted or absorbed.[6]:31
Trading one mystery – the regular pattern of the Rydberg formula – for another mystery – constraints on electron orbits – might not seem like a big advance, but the new atom model summarized many other experimental findings. The quantization of the photoelectric effect and now the quantization of the electron orbits set the stage for the final revolution.
Throughout the first and the modern era of quantum mechanics the concept that classical mechanics must be valid macroscopically constrained possible quantum models. This concept was formalized by Bohr in 1923 as the correspondence principle. It requires quantum theory to converge to classical limits.[9]:29 A related concept is Ehrenfest's theorem, which shows that the average values obtained from quantum mechanics (e.g. position and momentum) obey classical laws.[10]
Stern–Gerlach experiment: Silver atoms travelling through an inhomogeneous magnetic field, and being deflected up or down depending on their spin; (1) furnace, (2) beam of silver atoms, (3) inhomogeneous magnetic field, (4) classically expected result, (5) observed result
In 1922 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlachdemonstrated that the magnetic properties of silver atoms defy classical explanation. They fired a beam of silver atoms through a magnetic field, and obtained a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1943 in the following year. According to classical physics, the atoms should have emerged in a spray, with a continuous range of directions. Instead, the beam separated into two, and only two, diverging streams of atoms.[11] Unlike the other quantum effects known at the time, this striking result involves the state of a single atom.[5]:v2:130 In 1927, T.E. Phipps and J.B. Taylor obtained a similar, but less pronounced effect using hydrogen atoms in their ground state, thereby eliminating any doubts that may have been caused by the use of silver atoms.[12]
In 1924, Wolfgang Pauli called it "two-valuedness not describable classically" and associated it with electrons in the outermost shell.[13] The experiments lead to formulation of its theory described to arise from spin of the electron in 1925, by Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck, under the advice of Paul Ehrenfest.[14]
In 1924 Louis de Broglie proposed[15] that electrons in an atom are constrained not in "orbits" but as standing waves. In detail his solution did not work, but his hypothesis – that the electron "corpuscle" moves in the atom as a wave – spurred Erwin Schrödinger to develop a wave equation for electrons; when applied to hydrogen the Rydberg formula was accurately reproduced.[6]:65
Example original electron diffraction photograph from the laboratory of G. P. Thomson, recorded 1925–1927
Max Born's 1924 paper "Zur Quantenmechanik" was the first use of the words "quantum mechanics" in print.[16][17] His later work included developing quantum collision models; in a footnote to a 1926 paper he proposed the Born rule connecting theoretical models to experiment.[18]
In 1927 at Bell Labs, Clinton Davisson and Lester Germerfired slow-moving electrons at a crystallinenickel target which showed a diffraction pattern[19][20][21][22] indicating wave nature of electron whose theory was fully explained by Hans Bethe.[23] A similar experiment by George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid, firing electrons at thin celluloid foils and later metal films, observing rings independently discovered matter wave nature of electrons.[24]
Planck and Einstein started the revolution with quanta that broke down the continuous models of matter and light. Twenty years later "corpuscles" like electrons came to be modeled as continuous waves. This result came to be called wave-particle duality, one iconic idea along with the uncertainty principle that sets quantum mechanics apart from older models of physics.
In 1923 Compton demonstrated that the Planck-Einstein energy quanta from light also had momentum; three years later the "energy quanta" got a new name "photon"[25] Despite its role in almost all stages of the quantum revolution, no explicit model for light quanta existed until 1927 when Paul Dirac began work on a quantum theory of radiation[26] that became quantum electrodynamics. Over the following decades this work evolved into quantum field theory, the basis for modern quantum optics and particle physics.
The concept of wave–particle duality says that neither the classical concept of "particle" nor of "wave" can fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects, either photons or matter. Wave–particle duality is an example of the principle of complementarity in quantum physics.[27][28][29][30][31] An elegant example of wave-particle duality is the double-slit experiment.
The diffraction pattern produced when light is shone through one slit (top) and the interference pattern produced by two slits (bottom). Both patterns show oscillations due to the wave nature of light. The double slit pattern is more dramatic.The double-slit experiment for a classical particle, a wave, and a quantum particle demonstrating wave-particle duality
In the double-slit experiment, as originally performed by Thomas Young in 1803,[32] and then Augustin Fresnel a decade later,[32] a beam of light is directed through two narrow, closely spaced slits, producing an interference pattern of light and dark bands on a screen. The same behavior can be demonstrated in water waves: the double-slit experiment was seen as a demonstration of the wave nature of light.
Variations of the double-slit experiment have been performed using electrons, atoms, and even large molecules,[33][34] and the same type of interference pattern is seen. Thus it has been demonstrated that all matter possesses wave characteristics.
If the source intensity is turned down, the same interference pattern will slowly build up, one "count" or particle (e.g. photon or electron) at a time. The quantum system acts as a wave when passing through the double slits, but as a particle when it is detected. This is a typical feature of quantum complementarity: a quantum systems acts as a wave in an experiment to measure its wave-like properties, and like a particle in an experiment to measure its particle-like properties. The point on the detector screen where any individual particle shows up is the result of a random process. However, the distribution pattern of many individual particles mimics the diffraction pattern produced by waves.
Suppose it is desired to measure the position and speed of an object—for example, a car going through a radar speed trap. It can be assumed that the car has a definite position and speed at a particular moment in time. How accurately these values can be measured depends on the quality of the measuring equipment. If the precision of the measuring equipment is improved, it provides a result closer to the true value. It might be assumed that the speed of the car and its position could be operationally defined and measured simultaneously, as precisely as might be desired.
In 1927, Heisenberg proved that this last assumption is not correct.[36] Quantum mechanics shows that certain pairs of physical properties, for example, position and speed, cannot be simultaneously measured, nor defined in operational terms, to arbitrary precision: the more precisely one property is measured, or defined in operational terms, the less precisely can the other. This statement is known as the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty principle is not only a statement about the accuracy of our measuring equipment but, more deeply, is about the conceptual nature of the measured quantities—the assumption that the car had simultaneously defined position and speed does not work in quantum mechanics. On a scale of cars and people, these uncertainties are negligible, but when dealing with atoms and electrons they become critical.[37]
Heisenberg gave, as an illustration, the measurement of the position and momentum of an electron using a photon of light. In measuring the electron's position, the higher the frequency of the photon, the more accurate is the measurement of the position of the impact of the photon with the electron, but the greater is the disturbance of the electron. This is because from the impact with the photon, the electron absorbs a random amount of energy, rendering the measurement obtained of its momentum increasingly uncertain, for one is necessarily measuring its post-impact disturbed momentum from the collision products and not its original momentum (momentum which should be simultaneously measured with position). With a photon of lower frequency, the disturbance (and hence uncertainty) in the momentum is less, but so is the accuracy of the measurement of the position of the impact.[38]
At the heart of the uncertainty principle is a fact that for any mathematical analysis in the position and velocity domains, achieving a sharper (more precise) curve in the position domain can only be done at the expense of a more gradual (less precise) curve in the speed domain, and vice versa. More sharpness in the position domain requires contributions from more frequencies in the speed domain to create the narrower curve, and vice versa. It is a fundamental tradeoff inherent in any such related or complementary measurements, but is only really noticeable at the smallest (Planck) scale, near the size of elementary particles.
The uncertainty principle shows mathematically that the product of the uncertainty in the position and momentum of a particle (momentum is velocity multiplied by mass) could never be less than a certain value, and that this value is related to Planck's constant.
Wave function collapse means that a measurement has forced or converted a quantum (probabilistic or potential) state into a definite measured value. This phenomenon is only seen in quantum mechanics rather than classical mechanics.
For example, before a photon actually "shows up" on a detection screen it can be described only with a set of probabilities for where it might show up. When it does appear, for instance in the CCD of an electronic camera, the time and space where it interacted with the device are known within very tight limits. However, the photon has disappeared in the process of being captured (measured), and its quantum wave function has disappeared with it. In its place, some macroscopic physical change in the detection screen has appeared, e.g., an exposed spot in a sheet of photographic film, or a change in electric potential in some cell of a CCD.
Because of the uncertainty principle, statements about both the position and momentum of particles can assign only a probability that the position or momentum has some numerical value. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate clearly the difference between the state of something indeterminate, such as an electron in a probability cloud, and the state of something having a definite value. When an object can definitely be "pinned-down" in some respect, it is said to possess an eigenstate.
In the Stern–Gerlach experiment discussed above, the quantum model predicts two possible values of spin for the atom compared to the magnetic axis. These two eigenstates are named arbitrarily 'up' and 'down'. The quantum model predicts these states will be measured with equal probability, but no intermediate values will be seen. This is what the Stern–Gerlach experiment shows.
The eigenstates of spin about the vertical axis are not simultaneously eigenstates of spin about the horizontal axis, so this atom has an equal probability of being found to have either value of spin about the horizontal axis. As described in the section above, measuring the spin about the horizontal axis can allow an atom that was spun up to spin down: measuring its spin about the horizontal axis collapses its wave function into one of the eigenstates of this measurement, which means it is no longer in an eigenstate of spin about the vertical axis, so can take either value.
In 1924, Wolfgang Pauli proposed a new quantum degree of freedom (or quantum number), with two possible values, to resolve inconsistencies between observed molecular spectra and the predictions of quantum mechanics. In particular, the spectrum of atomic hydrogen had a doublet, or pair of lines differing by a small amount, where only one line was expected. Pauli formulated his exclusion principle, stating, "There cannot exist an atom in such a quantum state that two electrons within [it] have the same set of quantum numbers."[39]
In 1928, Paul Dirac extended the Pauli equation, which described spinning electrons, to account for special relativity. The result was a theory that dealt properly with events, such as the speed at which an electron orbits the nucleus, occurring at a substantial fraction of the speed of light. By using the simplest electromagnetic interaction, Dirac was able to predict the value of the magnetic moment associated with the electron's spin and found the experimentally observed value, which was too large to be that of a spinning charged sphere governed by classical physics. He was able to solve for the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom and to reproduce from physical first principles Sommerfeld's successful formula for the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum.
Dirac's equations sometimes yielded a negative value for energy, for which he proposed a novel solution: he posited the existence of an antielectron and a dynamical vacuum. This led to the many-particle quantum field theory.
In quantum physics, a group of particles can interact or be created together in such a way that the quantum state of each particle of the group cannot be described independently of the state of the others, including when the particles are separated by a large distance. This is known as quantum entanglement.
An early landmark in the study of entanglement was the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox, a thought experiment proposed by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen which argues that the description of physical reality provided by quantum mechanics is incomplete.[40] In a 1935 paper titled "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?", they argued for the existence of "elements of reality" that were not part of quantum theory, and speculated that it should be possible to construct a theory containing these hidden variables.
The thought experiment involves a pair of particles prepared in what would later become known as an entangled state. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen pointed out that, in this state, if the position of the first particle were measured, the result of measuring the position of the second particle could be predicted. If instead the momentum of the first particle were measured, then the result of measuring the momentum of the second particle could be predicted. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity." From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality.[41] In the same year, Erwin Schrödinger used the word "entanglement" and declared: "I would not call that one but rather the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics."[42]
The Irish physicist John Stewart Bell carried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be named the Bell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are "nonlocal", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.[43][44] Performing experiments like those that Bell suggested, physicists have found that nature obeys quantum mechanics and violates Bell inequalities. In other words, the results of these experiments are incompatible with any local hidden variable theory.[45][46]
The idea of quantum field theory began in the late 1920s with British physicist Paul Dirac, when he attempted to quantize the energy of the electromagnetic field; just like in quantum mechanics the energy of an electron in the hydrogen atom was quantized. Quantization is a procedure for constructing a quantum theory starting from a classical theory.
Merriam-Webster defines a field in physics as "a region or space in which a given effect (such as magnetism) exists".[47] Other effects that manifest themselves as fields are gravitation and static electricity.[48] In 2008, physicist Richard Hammond wrote:
Sometimes we distinguish between quantum mechanics (QM) and quantum field theory (QFT). QM refers to a system in which the number of particles is fixed, and the fields (such as the electromechanical field) are continuous classical entities. QFT... goes a step further and allows for the creation and annihilation of particles...
He added, however, that quantum mechanics is often used to refer to "the entire notion of quantum view".[49]:108
In 1931, Dirac proposed the existence of particles that later became known as antimatter.[50] Dirac shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1933 with Schrödinger "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory".[51]
Quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the name of the quantum theory of the electromagnetic force. Understanding QED begins with understanding electromagnetism. Electromagnetism can be called "electrodynamics" because it is a dynamic interaction between electrical and magnetic forces. Electromagnetism begins with the electric charge.
Electric charges are the sources of and create, electric fields. An electric field is a field that exerts a force on any particles that carry electric charges, at any point in space. This includes the electron, proton, and even quarks, among others. As a force is exerted, electric charges move, a current flows, and a magnetic field is produced. The changing magnetic field, in turn, causes electric current (often moving electrons). The physical description of interacting charged particles, electrical currents, electrical fields, and magnetic fields is called electromagnetism.
In 1928 Paul Dirac produced a relativistic quantum theory of electromagnetism. This was the progenitor to modern quantum electrodynamics, in that it had essential ingredients of the modern theory. However, the problem of unsolvable infinities developed in this relativistic quantum theory. Years later, renormalization largely solved this problem. Initially viewed as a provisional, suspect procedure by some of its originators, renormalization eventually was embraced as an important and self-consistent tool in QED and other fields of physics. Also, in the late 1940s Feynman diagrams provided a way to make predictions with QED by finding a probability amplitude for each possible way that an interaction could occur. The diagrams showed in particular that the electromagnetic force is the exchange of photons between interacting particles.[52]
The Lamb shift is an example of a quantum electrodynamics prediction that has been experimentally verified. It is an effect whereby the quantum nature of the electromagnetic field makes the energy levels in an atom or ion deviate slightly from what they would otherwise be. As a result, spectral lines may shift or split.
Similarly, within a freely propagating electromagnetic wave, the current can also be just an abstract displacement current, instead of involving charge carriers. In QED, its full description makes essential use of short-lived virtual particles. There, QED again validates an earlier, rather mysterious concept.
The physical measurements, equations, and predictions pertinent to quantum mechanics are all consistent and hold a very high level of confirmation. However, the question of what these abstract models say about the underlying nature of the real world has received competing answers. These interpretations are widely varying and sometimes somewhat abstract. For instance, the Copenhagen interpretation states that before a measurement, statements about a particle's properties are completely meaningless, while in the many-worlds interpretation describes the existence of a multiverse made up of every possible universe.[53]
Light behaves in some aspects like particles and in other aspects like waves. Matter—the "stuff" of the universe consisting of particles such as electrons and atoms—exhibits wavelike behavior too. Some light sources, such as neon lights, give off only certain specific frequencies of light, a small set of distinct pure colors determined by neon's atomic structure. Quantum mechanics shows that light, along with all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, comes in discrete units, called photons, and predicts its spectral energies (corresponding to pure colors), and the intensities of its light beams. A single photon is a quantum, or smallest observable particle, of the electromagnetic field. A partial photon is never experimentally observed. More broadly, quantum mechanics shows that many properties of objects, such as position, speed, and angular momentum, that appeared continuous in the zoomed-out view of classical mechanics, turn out to be (in the very tiny, zoomed-in scale of quantum mechanics) quantized. Such properties of elementary particles are required to take on one of a set of small, discrete allowable values, and since the gap between these values is also small, the discontinuities are only apparent at very tiny (atomic) scales.
The relationship between the frequency of electromagnetic radiation and the energy of each photon is why ultraviolet light can cause sunburn, but visible or infrared light cannot. A photon of ultraviolet light delivers a high amount of energy—enough to contribute to cellular damage such as occurs in a sunburn. A photon of infrared light delivers less energy—only enough to warm one's skin. So, an infrared lamp can warm a large surface, perhaps large enough to keep people comfortable in a cold room, but it cannot give anyone a sunburn.[54]
In even the simple light switch, quantum tunneling is absolutely vital, as otherwise the electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up of a layer of oxide. Flash memory chips found in USB drives also use quantum tunneling, to erase their memory cells.[55]
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The electron's mass is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, ħ. Being fermions, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, per the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves: They can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given energy.
A photon is an elementary particle that is a quantum of the electromagnetic field, including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. Photons are massless that always move at the speed of light when in vacuum. The photon belongs to the class of boson particles.
In physics, quantisation is the systematic transition procedure from a classical understanding of physical phenomena to a newer understanding known as quantum mechanics. It is a procedure for constructing quantum mechanics from classical mechanics. A generalization involving infinite degrees of freedom is field quantization, as in the "quantization of the electromagnetic field", referring to photons as field "quanta". This procedure is basic to theories of atomic physics, chemistry, particle physics, nuclear physics, condensed matter physics, and quantum optics.
Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the behavior of nature at and below the scale of atoms. It is the foundation of all quantum physics, which includes quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum technology, and quantum information science.
Wave–particle duality is the concept in quantum mechanics that quantum entities exhibit particle or wave properties according to the experimental circumstances. It expresses the inability of the classical concepts such as particle or wave to fully describe the behavior of quantum objects. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, light was found to behave as a wave, and then later discovered to have a particulate character, whereas electrons were found to act as particles, and then later discovered to have wavelike aspects. The concept of duality arose to name these contradictions.
Compton scattering is the quantum theory of high frequency photons scattering following an interaction with a charged particle, usually an electron. Specifically, when the photon hits electrons, it releases loosely bound electrons from the outer valence shells of atoms or molecules.
In physics, a correspondence principle is any one of several premises or assertions about the relationship between classical and quantum mechanics. Modern sources often use the term for the idea that that the behavior of systems described by quantum theory reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers: for large orbits and for large energies, quantum calculations must agree with classical calculations. However, the physicist Niels Bohr, who coined the term in 1920 during the early development towards quantum theory, used it in a different sense.
In physics, a subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom. According to the Standard Model of particle physics, a subatomic particle can be either a composite particle, which is composed of other particles, or an elementary particle, which is not composed of other particles. Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact. Most force carrying particles like photons or gluons are called bosons and, although they have discrete quanta of energy, do not have rest mass or discrete diameters and are unlike the former particles that have rest mass and cannot overlap or combine which are called fermions.
Quantum optics is a branch of atomic, molecular, and optical physics dealing with how individual quanta of light, known as photons, interact with atoms and molecules. It includes the study of the particle-like properties of photons. Photons have been used to test many of the counter-intuitive predictions of quantum mechanics, such as entanglement and teleportation, and are a useful resource for quantum information processing.
In physics, complementarity is a conceptual aspect of quantum mechanics that Niels Bohr regarded as an essential feature of the theory. The complementarity principle holds that objects have certain pairs of complementary properties which cannot all be observed or measured simultaneously, for examples, position and momentum or wave and particle properties. In contemporary terms, complementarity encompasses both the uncertainty principle and wave-particle duality.
The annus mirabilis papers are the four papers that Albert Einstein published in Annalen der Physik, a scientific journal, in 1905. These four papers were major contributions to the foundation of modern physics. They revolutionized science's understanding of the fundamental concepts of space, time, mass, and energy. Because Einstein published these remarkable papers in a single year, 1905 is called his annus mirabilis.
The first paper explained the photoelectric effect, which established the energy of the light quanta , and was the only specific discovery mentioned in the citation awarding Einstein the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.
The second paper explained Brownian motion, which established the Einstein relation and led reluctant physicists to accept the existence of atoms.
The third paper introduced Einstein's theory of special relativity, which used the universal constant speed of light to derive the Lorentz transformations.
The fourth, a consequence of the theory of special relativity, developed the principle of mass–energy equivalence, expressed in the famous equation and which led to the discovery and use of atomic energy decades later.
In particle physics, the history of quantum field theory starts with its creation by Paul Dirac, when he attempted to quantize the electromagnetic field in the late 1920s. Major advances in the theory were made in the 1940s and 1950s, leading to the introduction of renormalized quantum electrodynamics (QED). The field theory behind QED was so accurate and successful in predictions that efforts were made to apply the same basic concepts for the other forces of nature. Beginning in 1954, the parallel was found by way of gauge theory, leading by the late 1970s, to quantum field models of strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force, united in the modern Standard Model of particle physics.
The history of quantum mechanics is a fundamental part of the history of modern physics. The major chapters of this history begin with the emergence of quantum ideas to explain individual phenomena—blackbody radiation, the photoelectric effect, solar emission spectra—an era called the Old or Older quantum theories. Building on the technology developed in classical mechanics, the invention of wave mechanics by Erwin Schrödinger and expansion by many others triggers the "modern" era beginning around 1925. Paul Dirac's relativistic quantum theory work lead him to explore quantum theories of radiation, culminating in quantum electrodynamics, the first quantum field theory. The history of quantum mechanics continues in the history of quantum field theory. The history of quantum chemistry, theoretical basis of chemical structure, reactivity, and bonding, interlaces with the events discussed in this article.
In the history of quantum mechanics, the Bohr–Kramers–Slater (BKS) theory was perhaps the final attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the so-called old quantum theory, in which quantum phenomena are treated by imposing quantum restrictions on classically describable behaviour. It was advanced in 1924, and sticks to a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field. It was perhaps more a research program than a full physical theory, the ideas that are developed not being worked out in a quantitative way. The purpose of BKS theory was to disprove Einstein's hypothesis of the light quantum.
In physics, the observer effect is the disturbance of an observed system by the act of observation. This is often the result of utilizing instruments that, by necessity, alter the state of what they measure in some manner. A common example is checking the pressure in an automobile tire, which causes some of the air to escape, thereby changing the pressure to observe it. Similarly, seeing non-luminous objects requires light hitting the object to cause it to reflect that light. While the effects of observation are often negligible, the object still experiences a change. This effect can be found in many domains of physics, but can usually be reduced to insignificance by using different instruments or observation techniques.
The Planck constant, or Planck's constant, denoted by , is a fundamental physical constant of foundational importance in quantum mechanics: a photon's energy is equal to its frequency multiplied by the Planck constant, and the wavelength of a matter wave equals the Planck constant divided by the associated particle momentum.
In physics, a quantum is the minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction. Quantum is a discrete quantity of energy proportional in magnitude to the frequency of the radiation it represents. The fundamental notion that a property can be "quantized" is referred to as "the hypothesis of quantization". This means that the magnitude of the physical property can take on only discrete values consisting of integer multiples of one quantum. For example, a photon is a single quantum of light of a specific frequency. Similarly, the energy of an electron bound within an atom is quantized and can exist only in certain discrete values. Atoms and matter in general are stable because electrons can exist only at discrete energy levels within an atom. Quantization is one of the foundations of the much broader physics of quantum mechanics. Quantization of energy and its influence on how energy and matter interact is part of the fundamental framework for understanding and describing nature.
Physics is a scientific discipline that seeks to construct and experimentally test theories of the physical universe. These theories vary in their scope and can be organized into several distinct branches, which are outlined in this article.
The timeline of quantum mechanics is a list of key events in the history of quantum mechanics, quantum field theories and quantum chemistry.
A hallmark of Albert Einstein's career was his use of visualized thought experiments as a fundamental tool for understanding physical issues and for elucidating his concepts to others. Einstein's thought experiments took diverse forms. In his youth, he mentally chased beams of light. For special relativity, he employed moving trains and flashes of lightning to explain his most penetrating insights. For general relativity, he considered a person falling off a roof, accelerating elevators, blind beetles crawling on curved surfaces and the like. In his debates with Niels Bohr on the nature of reality, he proposed imaginary devices intended to show, at least in concept, how the Heisenberg uncertainty principle might be evaded. In a profound contribution to the literature on quantum mechanics, Einstein considered two particles briefly interacting and then flying apart so that their states are correlated, anticipating the phenomenon known as quantum entanglement.
1 2 3 Whittaker, Edmund T. (1989). A history of the theories of aether & electricity. 2: The modern theories, 1900 – 1926 (Repred.). New York: Dover Publ. ISBN978-0-486-26126-3.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Baggott, J. E. (2013). The quantum story: a history in 40 moments (Impression: 3ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN978-0-19-965597-7.
↑ Ehrenfest, P. (November 1925). "Ersetzung der Hypothese vom unmechanischen Zwang durch eine Forderung bezüglich des inneren Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Elektrons". Die Naturwissenschaften (in German). 13 (47): 953–954. doi:10.1007/bf01558878. ISSN0028-1042. S2CID32211960.
↑ de Broglie, Louis Victor. "On the Theory of Quanta"(PDF). Foundation of Louis de Broglie (English translation by A.F. Kracklauer, 2004.ed.). Retrieved 25 February 2023.
↑ Max Born, My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate, Taylor & Francis, London, 1978. ("We became more and more convinced that a radical change of the foundations of physics was necessary, i.e., a new kind of mechanics for which we used the term quantum mechanics. This word appears for the first time in physical literature in a paper of mine...")
↑ Eibenberger, Sandra (2013). "Matter–wave interference of particles selected from a molecular library with masses exceeding 10 000 amu". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 15 (35): 14696–700. arXiv:1310.8343. Bibcode:2013PCCP...1514696E. doi:10.1039/C3CP51500A. PMID23900710. S2CID3944699. [I]n a three-grating interferometer... We observe high-contrast quantum fringe patterns of molecules... having 810 atoms in a single particle.
↑ Heisenberg first published his work on the uncertainty principle in the leading German physics journal Zeitschrift für Physik: Heisenberg, W. (1927). "Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik". Z. Phys. 43 (3–4): 172–98. Bibcode:1927ZPhy...43..172H. doi:10.1007/BF01397280. S2CID122763326.
↑ Schrödinger, E. (1935). "Discussion of probability relations between separated systems". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 31: 555. doi:10.1017/S0305004100013554. When two systems, of which we know the states by their respective representation, enter into a temporary physical interaction due to known forces between them and when after a time of mutual influence the systems separate again, then they can no longer be described as before, viz., by endowing each of them with a representative of its own. I would not call that one but rather the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought.
Shimony, A. (1983). "(title not given in citation)". Foundations of Quantum Mechanics in the Light of New Technology (S. Kamefuchi et al., eds.). Tokyo: Japan Physical Society. p.225.; cited in: Popescu, Sandu; Daniel Rohrlich (1996). "Action and Passion at a Distance: An Essay in Honor of Professor Abner Shimony". arXiv:quant-ph/9605004.
Ford, Kenneth (2005). The Quantum World. Harvard Univ. Press. Includes elementary particle physics.
Ghirardi, GianCarlo (2004). Sneaking a Look at God's Cards, Gerald Malsbary, trans. Princeton Univ. Press. The most technical of the works cited here. Passages using algebra, trigonometry, and bra–ket notation can be passed over on a first reading.
Tony Hey and Walters, Patrick (2003). The New Quantum Universe. Cambridge Univ. Press. Includes much about the technologies quantum theory has made possible. ISBN978-0521564571.
Vladimir G. Ivancevic, Tijana T. Ivancevic (2008). Quantum leap: from Dirac and Feynman, Across the universe, to human body and mind. World Scientific Publishing Company. Provides an intuitive introduction in non-mathematical terms and an introduction in comparatively basic mathematical terms. ISBN978-9812819277.
J. P. McEvoy and Oscar Zarate (2004). Introducing Quantum Theory. Totem Books. ISBN1840465778'
N. David Mermin (1990). "Spooky actions at a distance: mysteries of the QT" in his Boojums all the way through. Cambridge Univ. Press: 110–76. The author is a rare physicist who tries to communicate to philosophers and humanists. ISBN978-0521388801.
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