Yamhad (Yamḫad) was an ancient Semitic-speaking kingdom centered on Ḥalab (Aleppo) in Syria. The kingdom emerged at the end of the 19th century BC and was ruled by the Yamhad dynasty, who counted on both military and diplomacy to expand their realm. From the beginning of its establishment, the kingdom withstood the aggressions of its neighbors Mari, Qatna and the Old Assyrian Empire, and was turned into the most powerful Syrian kingdom of its era through the actions of its king Yarim-Lim I. By the middle of the 18th century BC, most of Syria minus the south came under the authority of Yamhad, either as a direct possession or through vassalage, and for nearly a century and a half, Yamhad dominated northern, northwestern and eastern Syria, and had influence over small kingdoms in Mesopotamia at the borders of Elam. The kingdom was eventually destroyed by the Hittites, then annexed by Mitanni in the 16th century BC.
Ebla was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria. Its remains constitute a tell located about 55 km (34 mi) southwest of Aleppo near the village of Mardikh. Ebla was an important center throughout the 3rd millennium BC and in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Its discovery proved the Levant was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to Egypt and Mesopotamia and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in the Near East during the Early Bronze Age. The first Eblaite kingdom has been described as the first recorded world power.
Mari was an ancient Semitic city-state in modern-day Syria. Its remains form a tell 11 kilometers north-west of Abu Kamal on the Euphrates River western bank, some 120 kilometers southeast of Deir ez-Zor. It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC. The city was built in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes between Sumer in the south and the Eblaite kingdom and the Levant in the west.
The Third Dynasty of Ur or Ur III was a Sumerian dynasty based in the city of Ur in the 22nd and 21st centuries BC. For a short period they were the preeminent power in Mesopotamia and their realm is sometimes referred to by historians as the Neo-Sumerian Empire.
Irkab-Damu, was the king (Malikum) of the first Eblaite kingdom, whose era saw Ebla's turning into the dominant power in the Levant.
The Dynasty of Isin refers to the final ruling dynasty listed on the Sumerian King List (SKL). The list of the Kings of Isin with the length of their reigns, also appears on a cuneiform document listing the kings of Ur and Isin, the List of Reigns of Kings of Ur and Isin.
Akshak was a city of ancient Sumer, situated on the northern boundary of Akkad, sometimes identified with Babylonian Upi. It is known, based on an inscription "‘Ur-kisala, the sangu-priest of Sin of Akshak, son of Na-ti, pasisu-priest of Sin to Salam presented [this statue]." that there was a temple of the god Sin in Akshak.
Hammurabi I is the third attested king of Yamhad (Halab).
Iblul-Il, was the most energetic king (Lugal) of the second Mariote kingdom, noted for his extensive campaigns in the middle Euphrates valley against the Eblaites, and in the upper Tigris region against various opponents, which asserted the Mariote supremacy in the Syrian north.
Hanun-Dagan, was the Shakkanakku and king (Lugal) of Mari reigning c. 2016-2008 BC. He was the brother of his predecessor Hitlal-Erra, and is recorded as the son of Shakkanakku Puzur-Ishtar on a seal discovered in the city. Although the title of Shakkanakku designated a military governor, the title holders in Mari were independent monarchs, and nominally under the vassalage of the Ur III dynasty. Some Shakkanakkus used the royal title Lugal in their votive inscriptions, while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur's court, and it is certain that Hanun-Dagan used the royal title.
Ansud, was an early king (Lugal) of the second Mariote kingdom. Ansud is known for warring against the Eblaites from a letter written by the later Mariote king Enna-Dagan.
Ishtup-Ishar (Ištup-Išar) was a king (Lugal) of the second Mariote kingdom. The king's name was traditionally read as Išhtup-šar, with šar being a common divine element in personal names attested in the region. However, the king's name is read as Ishtup-Ishar by Alfonso Archi, Ishar being an important justice deity worshiped in Mari and Ebla.
Shakkanakku, was an Akkadian-language title designating a military governor. Mari was ruled by a dynasty of hereditary Shakkanakkus which was originally set by the Akkadian Empire and gained independence following Akkad's collapse. It is considered that the Shakkanakkus gained some form of independence and came to be considered as "Kings" from the time of Apil-Kin. A critical analysis of the Shakkanakku List of Mari has been published.
Simurrum was an important city state of the Mesopotamian area from around 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE, during the period of the Akkadian Empire down to Ur III. The Simurrum Kingdom disappears from records after the Old Babylonian period. It has been proposed that in Old Babylonian times its name was Zabban, a notable cult center of Adad. It was neighbor and sometimes ally with the Lullubi kingdom. Zabban is noted as a cult center of Adad into the Neo-Babylonian period.
Puzur-Ishtar was a ruler of the city of Mari, northern Mesopotamia, after the fall of the Akkadian Empire. He was contemporary of the Third Dynasty of Ur, and probably their vassal.
Ishtup-Ilum, also Ishtup-El was a ruler of the city of Mari, one of the military governors known as Shakkanakku in northern Mesopotamia, after the fall of the Akkadian Empire. He was probably contemporary with the Second Dynasty of Lagash, around the time of Gudea. He was the son of Ishma-Dagan and brother of Nûr-Mêr, both Shakkanakkus of Mari before him, and, according to the dynastic lists, he ruled after them for a period of 11 years.
Ishma-Dagan was a ruler of the city of Mari, one of the military governors known as Shakkanakku in northern Mesopotamia, in the later period of the Akkadian Empire. According to the dynastic lists, he ruled for 45 years, after Shu-Dagan, and was the third Shakkanakku ruler. Ishma-Dagan was probably contemporary with the Akkadian Empire ruler Shar-Kali-Sharri. He had two sons who succeeded him in turn as Shakkanakkus of Mari: Nûr-Mêr and Ishtup-Ilum.
Apil-kin, was a ruler of the city of Mari, northern Mesopotamia, after the fall of the Akkadian Empire c. 2126-2091 BCE. He was a son of Ishgum-Addu, and ruled 35 years, according to the Shakkanakku Dynasty List. He had two sons, who succeeded him in turn: Ili-Ishar and Tura-Dagan.
Ishgum-Addu or Ishgum-Addad, or more probably Ishkun-Dagan, was a ruler of the city of Mari, northern Mesopotamia, for eight years c. 2135-2127 BCE, after the fall of the Akkadian Empire. He had a son named Apil-kin, according to the Shakkanakku Dynasty List, who ruled after him.
Nûr-Mêr, also Niwâr-Mêr was a ruler of the city of Mari, one of the military governors known as Shakkanakku in northern Mesopotamia, in the later period of the Akkadian Empire. According to the dynastic lists, he ruled for 5 years, after his father Ishma-Dagan, and was the fourth Shakkanakku ruler. Nûr-Mêr was probably contemporary with the Akkadian Empire rulers Naram-Sin or Shar-Kali-Sharri. He was succeeded by his brother Ishtup-Ilum as Shakkanakku of Mari.
