Annonaceae

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Annonaceae
Temporal range: Coniacian - recent [1]
Annona squamosa.jpg
Annona squamosa fruit
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Magnoliales
Family: Annonaceae
Juss.
Type genus
Annona
Subfamilies
Synonyms

The Annonaceae are a family of flowering plants consisting of trees, shrubs, or rarely lianas [3] commonly known as the custard apple family [4] [3] or soursop family. With 108 accepted genera and about 2400 known species, [5] it is the largest family in the Magnoliales. Several genera produce edible fruit, most notably Annona , Anonidium , Asimina , Rollinia , and Uvaria . Its type genus is Annona. The family is concentrated in the tropics, with few species found in temperate regions. About 900 species are Neotropical, 450 are Afrotropical, and the remaining are Indomalayan.

Contents

Description

Annona muricata Annona muricata Blanco1.196.png
Annona muricata

The species are mostly tropical, some are mid-latitude, deciduous or evergreen trees and shrubs, with some lianas, with aromatic bark, leaves, and flowers. [3]

Stems, stalks and leaves
Bark is fibrous and aromatic. Pith septate (fine tangential bands [6] divided by partitions) to diaphragmed (divided by thin partitions with openings in them). [3] Branching distichous (arranged in two rows/on one plane) or spiral. [7] Leaves are alternate, two-ranked, [7] simple, pinnately veined, and have leaf stalks. Stipules absent. [3]
Flowers
Flower stalks are axillary to (on the opposite side of shoot from) leaf scars on old wood and sometimes from leaves on new shoots. The flowers are usually trimerous; borne singly or in compound inflorescences; bisexual and rarely unisexual. The receptacle might become enlarged, elevated or flat. The outer whorls are inserted below the ovaries, and have valvate (overlapping) or imbricate (nonoverlapping) segments. Usually two to four persistent sepals that are distinct or connate (fused) at the base. Six petals in two unequal whorls of three with larger outer whorls and fleshier inner whorls that might share the same nectar glands, or six to fifteen petals, with impressed veins on their inner face. Ten to twenty (or many more) stamens inserted below the ovary, spirally arranged and forming a ball or flat-topped mass with short and stout filaments and linear to oblong anthers which face outward and open longitudinally. Each flower can have from one to many pistils, distinct to connate, with stigmas distinct. Marginal placentation, each pistil bearing one locule, with one to many ovules. Style short and thick, with terminal stigma. [3]
Fruits and seeds
Fruits are single berries or coalesce from several pistils (into aggregate fruit, syncarps). Seeds are one to many per pistil; have a fleshy and usually brightly colored cover, have ruminate endosperm (nutritive tissue surrounding the embryo) and are oily. [3]

Systematics

Monophyly and inter-familial systematics have been well supported for Annonaceae by a combination of morphological and molecular evidence. [8] The APG II system places Annonaceae as most closely related to the small Magnoliid family Eupomatiaceae.

Uvaria ovata Uvaria ovata II.JPG
Uvaria ovata
Magnoliidae
Annonaceae

In a phylogeny-based reclassification of the family [5] four subfamilies are recognised: Anaxagoreoideae (including just Anaxagorea ), Ambavioideae, Annonoideae, and Malmeoideae. A number of the larger genera, including Guatteria , with its 177 species, [9] Annona , and Xylopia belong to Annonoideae. Together, Annonoideae and Malmeoideae comprise the majority of the species and each are further subdivided into a number of tribes. The subfamilial and tribal classification is followed in World Annonaceae which presents an overview of all Annonaceae genera and taxonomic, distribution and photographic information for a large number of species. Keys for the identification of Annonaceae genera (separately for Neotropical, African/Madagascan, and Asian/Australian taxa) are presented in: [10] For a concise bibliographic overview of the taxonomic literature (1900 to 2012) see: [11]

Both plastid DNA markers and morphological characters provide evidence that Anaxagorea is the sister clade to the rest of the family. This may confirm the hypothesis that morphological traits shared between Anaxagorea and other Magnoliales species (such as 2-ranked phyllotaxis, monosulcate pollen, and laminate stamens) represent ancestral characters, while derived characters observed in other genera have evolved independently multiple times. [12] [13] [14] The oldest fossil evidence of Annonaceae is described as the genus Futabanthus, from the Late Cretaceous (Coniacian) of Japan, [15] which represents a minimum age of c. 89 million years ago for the most recent common ancestor (crown group) of the family. [16] The ages of Annonaceae clades inferred using fossil evidence and molecular clock-based dating techniques suggests that the pantropical distribution of the family originated subsequent to the break-up of the Gondwanan supercontinent, as the result of a combination of geodispersal tracking the expansion of the boreotropical flora during the Eocene and more recent long-distance dispersal events. [17] [18]

Taxonomic revisions within the subfamily Malmeoideae

The reclassification and establishment of Huberantha

The genus Huberantha (synonym Hubera) was resolved to be sister to Miliusa , with certain species previously under Polyalthia being additionally reclassified. [19] This reclassification was highly supported by maximum parsimony, Bayesian analysis, and morphological characters. Hubera is characterized by reticulate tertiary venation, axillary inflorescences, 1 ovule per ovary, seeds with flat to slightly raised raphes, and other characters. Huberantha's phylogenetic distance and morphological difference from Monoon and Polyalthia, distinguish Huberantha on the generic level. Morphologically, Huberantha has a finely and densely granular infratectum whereas Monoon and Polyalthia have columellate or densely granular infratecta. [19]

Controversy over Stelechocarpus/Winitia

It was proposed that the genus Stelechocarpus , which includes S. burahol and S. cauliflorus be reclassified under a new genus Winitia, which is characterized by mixed flowers, multicolumellar stigmas, and columellate/coarsely granular infratectum. This genus was created after phylogenetic analysis that highly supported an unclassified species from Thailand being sister to S. cauliflorus as a monophyletic group. [20] However this is no longer accepted. [21]

Reclassification of Annickia as tribe Annickieae

The genus Annickia was previously included within the tribe Piptostigmateae. However, it is highly supported to being sister to the rest of the Malmeoideae tribes, and weakly supported to being sister to the rest of the Piptostigmateae genera. For these reasons, Annickia is now classified within its own tribe in the Malmeoideae, the Annickieae. [22]

Subfamilies

The taxonomy of the Annonaceae is based on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, which recognises four subfamilies [23] [24] and the extinct genus † Anonaspermum [25]

Anaxagoreoideae

Auth.: Chatrou et al. 2012 (monotypic)

Ambavioideae

Auth.: Chatrou et al. 2012

Annonoideae

Auth. Rafinesque, 1815

Malmeoideae

Uses

Asimina triloba fruit Asimina triloba red fern farm.jpg
Asimina triloba fruit

Food

The large, edible, pulpy fruits of some members, typically called anona by Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking people of the family's Neotropical range, include species of Annona : custard apple ( A. reticulata ), cherimoya ( A. cherimola ), soursop/guanábana/graviola ( A. muricata ), sweetsop ( A. squamosa ), ilama ( A. macroprophyllata ), soncoya ( A. purpurea ), atemoya (a cross between A. cherimola and A. squamosa); and biriba ( A. mucosa ). [29] The names of many of those fruits are sometimes used interchangeably.

Consumption of the neotropical annonaceous plant Annona muricata (soursop, graviola, guanabana) has been strongly associated as a causal agent in "atypical Parkinsonism". The causative agent, annonacin, is present in the seeds and leaves of many of the Annonaceae, though not in any significant quantity in the fruit flesh. It is thought to be responsible for up to 70% of Parkinsonian conditions in Guadeloupe. Exposure is typically through traditional food and natural medicines. [30] [31] [32] [33]

The American pawpaw ( Asimina triloba ) has an Eastern United States distribution and has been investigated as a commercial agricultural crop. [34]

Flower petals from sacred earflower ( Cymbopetalum penduliflorum ) and from related species C. costaricense [35] were traditionally used to flavor chocolate [36] before the arrival of cinnamon and the other Old World spices. [37] The dried petals are still used to flavor atoles, pinoles, and coffee. [38]

Folk medicine

The bark, leaves, and roots of some species are used in folk medicines.[ citation needed ]

Toxicology

The acetogenin compounds, which occur in the fruit, seeds, and leaves of many Annonaceae, including soursop ( Annona muricata ), are neurotoxins and seem to be the cause of a neurodegenerative disease. The disorder is a so-called tauopathy associated with a pathologic accumulation of tau protein in the brain. Experimental results indicate that acetogenins are responsible for this accumulation. [39]

Other uses

Lancewood ( Oxandra lanceolata ) [40] is a tough, elastic, and heavy wood obtained from the West Indies and The Guianas. It was often used for carriage shafts. It is brought into commerce in the form of taper poles of about 6 m in length and from 15 to 20 cm in breadth at the butt. The black lancewood or carisiri of the Guianas is of remarkably slender form.

The yellow lancewood tree Calycophyllum candididissimum, common names lemonwood or degame, is from a different family (Rubiaceae). [40] It is used as an alternative to lancewood and is found in tolerable abundance throughout The Guianas, and used by the Amerinds for arrow-points, as well as for spars, beams, etc. Some bowyers use this wood for making longbows.

Other

Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) flowers. Ylang-Eden.jpg
Ylang-ylang ( Cananga odorata) flowers.

Chemical constituents

A large number of chemical compounds, including flavonoids, alkaloids, and acetogenins, have been extracted from the seeds and many other parts of these plants. Flavonoids and alkaloids contained in the leaves and bark of several species of the family have shown insecticidal properties. [41]

Related Research Articles

<i>Mitrephora</i> Genus of plant in the family Annonaceae

Mitrephora is a genus of flowering plants in the family Annonaceae, that are native to an area that extends from China in the north to Queensland. Plants in the genus Mitrephora are also found in southern India and Southeast Asia.

<i>Anaxagorea</i> Genus of flowering plants

Anaxagorea is a genus of flowering plants in the subfamily Anaxagoreoideae in the family Annonaceae. There are about 26 species, distributed in Central and South America.

Hexalobus salicifolius is a species of flowering plant in the family Annonaceae. It is found in Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo. Local common names include oouè, owoé, and owui.

<i>Monodora</i> Genus of flowering plants

Monodora is a genus of plant in family Annonaceae. It contains approximately 15 species, distributed throughout tropical Africa.

<i>Phaeanthus</i> Genus of flowering plants

Phaeanthus is a genus of plant in family Annonaceae.

<i>Polyalthia</i> Genus of flowering plants

Polyalthia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Annonaceae. There are approximately 90 species distributed from Africa to Asia and the Pacific.

<i>Meiogyne</i> Genus of flowering plants

Meiogyne is a genus of flowering plants with 38 species belonging to the family Annonaceae. It is native from southwestern India and Indochina to Australia, including Fiji and New Caledonia. The type species is Meiogyne virgata.

<i>Artabotrys</i> Genus of flowering plants

Artabotrys is a genus of plants in the Annonaceae family. There are over 100 species in the Old World tropics, with 31 species in Africa. It is part of the custard apple family (Annonaceae). All species are small trees or shrubs with a tendency to climb. Leaves are simple and alternate, without hairs. Bisexual flowers are borne singly or in clusters opposite the leaves. The 6-petalled flowers are scented, and the plant bears fleshy fruits.

<i>Huberantha cerasoides</i> Species of flowering plant

Huberantha cerasoides is a species of trees in the family Annonaceae and tribe Miliuseae. It is the type species of the relatively new genus Huberantha.

<i>Cremastosperma</i> Genus of flowering plants

Cremastosperma is a genus of flowering plants in the family Annonaceae, subfamily Malmeoideae, tribe Malmeae. In 2018 there were 34 recognised species distributed in Central and South America.

Hexalobus bussei is a species of plant in the family Annonaceae. It is native to Cameroon. Ludwig Diels, the German botanist who first formally described the species, named it after another German botanist, Walter Busse, who collected the sample that Diels examined.

<i>Huberantha</i> Genus of plants

Huberantha is a genus of plants in the family Annonaceae and tribe Miliuseae. It is distributed in Australia, tropical Asia, East Africa and some Pacific islands. Tanawat Chaowasku named the genus "Huber's flowers" in honor of the German botanist Herbert Huber and to highlight its flowers as a distinguishing feature of the genus. A number of species have been moved here from the genus Polyalthia.

<i>Monodora minor</i> Species of plant in the family Annonaceae

Monodora minor is a species of plant in the family Annonaceae. It is native to Mozambique and Tanzania. Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler and Ludwig Diels, the German botanists who first formally described the species, do not explicitly explain the specific epithet but it is among the smaller members of the genus which includes species that reach heights of 30-40 meters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malmeoideae</span> Subfamily of plants

The Malmeoideae are a subfamily of trees and other plants of the family Annonaceae.

<i>Friesodielsia</i> Genus of Annonaceae plants

Friesodielsia is a genus of flowering plants in the custard apple and soursop family Annonaceae, with all species found in the Old World, mostly in the tropics. A molecular study shows that Friesodielsia should be more narrowly circumscribed, with the only species remaining being the Asian ones, which can also be distinguished by their possession of globose or ellipsoid monocarps, and six petals per flower arranged in two whorls.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Annonoideae</span> Subfamily of plants

Annonoideae is a subfamily of plants in the family Annonaceae, with genera distributed in tropical areas world-wide. The family and this subfamily are based on the type genus Annona.

Polyalthiopsis is an Asian tree genus in the family Annonaceae and tribe Miliuseae. Its native range is southern Vietnam.

Maasia is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Annonaceae.

Pyramidanthe is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Annonaceae. It includes 12 species native to western Malesia, New Guinea, and the Northern Territory of Australia.

References

  1. ↑ "Magnoliales". www.mobot.org. Retrieved 2023-06-18.
  2. ↑ Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) (2007-05-12). "Family: Annonaceae Juss., nom. cons". Taxonomy for Plants. USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Flora of North America. "2. Annonaceae Jussieu". 3. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-20.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. ↑ "Annonaceae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System . Retrieved 18 March 2008.
  5. 1 2 Chatrou, L.W.; M.D. Pirie; R.H.J. Erkens; T.L.P. Couvreur; K. M. Neubig; J.R. Abbott; J.B. Mols; P.J.M. Maas; R.M.K. Saunders; Mark W. Chase (2012). "A new subfamilial and tribal classification of the pantropical flowering plant family Annonaceae informed by molecular phylogenetics". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 169: S. 4–50. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8339.2012.01235.x . S2CID   82465841.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Chatrou, Dr. L.W. (2005-07-29). "Molecular Systematics of Annonaceae". Annonaceae Research Projects. Nationaal Herbarium Nederland. Archived from the original on 2008-01-13. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
  7. 1 2 Johnson, D.M. (July–September 2003). "Phylogenetic significance of spiral and distichous architecture in the Annonaceae". Systematic Botany . 28 (3): 503–511. doi:10.1043/02-13.1 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  8. ↑ Doyle, J.A.; H. Sauquet; T. Scharaschkin (2004). "Phylogeny, molecular and fossil dating, and biogeographic history of Annonaceae and Myristicaceae (Magnoliales)" (PDF). International Journal of Plant Sciences. 165 (4): 55–67. doi:10.1086/421068. S2CID   84131983.
  9. ↑ Maas, P.J.M.; Westra, L.Y.T.; Guerrero, S. Arias; Lobão, A.Q.; Scharf, U.; Zamora, N.A.; Erkens, R.H.J. (2015). "Confronting a morphological nightmare: revision of the Neotropical genus Guatteria (Annonaceae)". Blumea - Biodiversity, Evolution and Biogeography of Plants. 60 (1): 1–219. doi:10.3767/000651915X690341. ISSN   0006-5196.
  10. ↑ Couvreur, Thomas L.P.; Maas, Paul J.M.; Meinke, Svenja; Johnson, David M.; Keßler, Paul J.A. (2012). "Keys to the genera of Annonaceae". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 169 (1): 74–83. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2012.01230.x. ISSN   0024-4074.
  11. ↑ Erkens, Roy H. J.; Mennega, Erik A.; Westra, Lubbert Y. Th. (2012). "A concise bibliographic overview of Annonaceae". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 169 (1): 41–73. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8339.2012.01232.x . ISSN   0024-4074.
  12. ↑ Scharaschkin, T.; Doyle, J.A. (2005). "Phylogeny and historical biogeography of Anaxagorea (Annonaceae) using morphology and non-coding chloroplast sequence data". Systematic Botany. 30 (5): 712–735. doi:10.1600/036364405775097888. S2CID   86018723.
  13. ↑ Scharaschkin, T.; Doyle, J.A. (2006). "Character evolution in Anaxagorea (Annonaceae)" (PDF). American Journal of Botany. 93 (1): 36–54. doi:10.3732/ajb.93.1.36.
  14. ↑ Doyle, James A.; Le Thomas, Annick (2012). "Evolution and phylogenetic significance of pollen in Annonaceae". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 169 (1): 190–221. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2012.01241.x. ISSN   0024-4074. S2CID   82733997.
  15. ↑ Takahashi, Masamichi; Friis, Else Marie; Uesugi, Kentaro; Suzuki, Yoshio; Crane, Peter R. (2008). "Floral Evidence of Annonaceae from the Late Cretaceous of Japan". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 169 (7): 908–917. doi:10.1086/589693. ISSN   1058-5893. S2CID   85308472.
  16. ↑ Pirie, Michael D.; Doyle, James A. (2012). "Dating clades with fossils and molecules: the case of Annonaceae". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 169 (1): 84–116. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8339.2012.01234.x . ISSN   0024-4074.
  17. ↑ Richardson, J.E.; Chatrou, L.W.; Mols, J.B.; Erkens, R.H.J.; Pirie, M.D. (2004). "Historical biogeography of two cosmopolitan families of flowering plants: Annonaceae and Rhamnaceae". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 359 (1450): 1495–1508. doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1537. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   1693429 . PMID   15519968.
  18. ↑ Couvreur, Thomas L.P.; Pirie, Michael D.; Chatrou, Lars W.; Saunders, Richard M.K.; Su, Yvonne C.F.; Richardson, James E.; Erkens, Roy H.J. (2011). "Early evolutionary history of the flowering plant family Annonaceae: steady diversification and boreotropical geodispersal". Journal of Biogeography. 38 (4): 664–680. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02434.x. ISSN   0305-0270. S2CID   85568637.
  19. 1 2 Chaowasku, Tanawat; Johnson, David M.; Van Der Ham, Raymond W.J.M.; Chatrou, Lars W. (2012-10-17). "Characterization of Hubera (Annonaceae), a new genus segregated from Polyalthia and allied to Miliusa". Phytotaxa. 69 (1): 33. doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.69.1.6 . ISSN   1179-3163.
  20. ↑ Chaowasku, Tanawat; Van Der Ham, Raymond W.J.M. (June 2013). "Integrative systematics supports the establishment of Winitia, a new genus of Annonaceae (Malmeoideae, Miliuseae) allied to Stelechocarpus and Sageraea". Systematics and Biodiversity. 11 (2): 195–207. doi:10.1080/14772000.2013.806370. ISSN   1477-2000. S2CID   86528302.
  21. ↑ POWO: Winitia Chaowasku is a synonym of Stelechocarpus Hook.f. & Thomson (retrieved 19 July 2022)
  22. 1 2 Couvreur, Thomas L.P.; Helmstetter, Andrew J.; Koenen, Erik J.M.; Bethune, Kevin; Brandão, Rita D.; Little, Stefan A.; Sauquet, Hervé; Erkens, Roy H.J. (2019-01-09). "Phylogenomics of the Major Tropical Plant Family Annonaceae Using Targeted Enrichment of Nuclear Genes". Frontiers in Plant Science. 9: 1941. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01941 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   6334231 . PMID   30687347.
  23. ↑ Stevens, P.F. (2001). "List of Genera in ANNONACEAE". Angiosperm Phylogeny Website . 13. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
  24. ↑ Guo, Xing; Tang, Chin Cheung; Thomas, Daniel C.; Couvreur, Thomas L.P.; Saunders, Richard M.K. (2018). "A mega-phylogeny of the Annonaceae: taxonomic placement of five enigmatic genera and support for a new tribe, Phoenicantheae". Scientific Reports . 7 (7): 7323. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07252-2. PMC   5544705 . PMID   28779135.
  25. ↑ Manchester, S.R. (1994). "Fruits and Seeds of the Middle Eocene Nut Beds Flora, Clarno Formation, Oregon". Palaeontographica Americana . 58: 30–31.
  26. 1 2 3 Dagallier LMJ, Mbago FM, Couderc M, Gaudeul M, Grall A, Loup C, Wieringa JJ, Sonké B, Couvreur TLP. Phylogenomic inference of the African tribe Monodoreae (Annonaceae) and taxonomic revision of Dennettia, Uvariodendron and Uvariopsis. PhytoKeys. 2023 Sep 22;233:1-200. doi: 10.3897/phytokeys.233.103096. PMID 37811332; PMCID: PMC10552675.
  27. ↑ Bangkomnate R., Damthongdee A., Baka A., Aongyong K. & Chaowasku T. 2021: Pyramidanthe and Mitrella (Annonaceae, Uvarieae) unified: molecular phylogenetic and morphological congruence, with new combinations in Pyramidanthe. – Willdenowia 51: 383–394.
  28. ↑ Chaowasku, T., A. Damthongdee, H. Jongsook, D.T. Ngo, H.T. Le, D.M. Tran & S. Suddee (2018). Enlarging the monotypic Monocarpieae (Annonaceae, Malmeoideae): recognition of a second genus from Vietnam informed by morphology and molecular phylogenetics. Candollea 73: 261–275. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15553/c2018v732a11
  29. ↑ Verspagen, N. & Erkens, R.H.J. 2020. Annona mucosa . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T142423363A142423374. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T142423363A142423374.en. Accessed 27 September 2024.
  30. ↑ Lannuzel, A; et al. (2003-10-06). "The mitochondrial complex i inhibitor annonacin is toxic to mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons by impairment of energy metabolism". Neuroscience. 121 (2). International Brain Research Organization: 287–296. doi:10.1016/S0306-4522(03)00441-X. PMID   14521988. S2CID   37873631.
  31. ↑ Champy, Pierre; et al. (2005-08-02). "Quantification of acetogenins in Annona muricata linked to atypical parkinsonism in guadeloupe". Movement Disorders. 20 (12): 1629–1633. doi:10.1002/mds.20632. PMID   16078200. S2CID   31508365.
  32. ↑ Lannuzel A, Höglinger GU, Champy P, Michel PP, Hirsch EC, Ruberg M (2006). "Is atypical parkinsonism in the Caribbean caused by the consumption of Annonacae?". Parkinson's Disease and Related Disorders. Journal of Neural Transmission. Supplementa. Vol. 70. pp. 153–157. doi:10.1007/978-3-211-45295-0_24. ISBN   978-3-211-28927-3. PMID   17017523.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  33. ↑ Caparros-Lefebvre D, Elbaz A (1999-07-24). "Possible relation of atypical parkinsonism in the French West Indies with consumption of tropical plants: a case-control study". The Lancet . 354 (9175): 281–6. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)10166-6. PMID   10440304. S2CID   24204451.
  34. ↑ Pomper, K.W.; et al. (July 2008). "Flowering and fruiting characteristics of eight pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.)] Dunal selections in Kentucky". Journal American Pomological Society. 62 (3): 89–97.
  35. ↑ Seidemann, Johannes (27 December 2005). "C". World Spice Plants: Economic Usage, Botany, Taxonomy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 129. ISBN   9783540279082 . Retrieved 2 July 2015. Flavoring of drinking chocolate
  36. ↑ Uphof, Johannes Cornelis Theodorus (1968) [1959]. Dictionary of Economic Plants (second ed.). New York, NY: J. Cramer. p. 167. ISBN   9783904144711. OCLC   48693661.
  37. ↑ U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, ed. (May 1922). Inventory of Seeds and Plants Imported by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction during the Period from April 1 to June 30, 1918 (PDF). Vol. 55. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. pp. 5, 35–36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
  38. ↑ Murray, Nancy A. (6 December 1993). Revision of Cymbopetalum and Porcelia (Annonaceae). Systematic botany monographs. Vol. 40. Ann Arbor, Mich: American Society of Plant Taxonomists. ISBN   9780912861401. OCLC   29527548.
  39. ↑ Informationsdienst Wissenschaft: Tauopathie durch pflanzliches Nervengift Archived June 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine , 4. Mai 2007
  40. 1 2 Lincoln, William A (1986). World Woods in Colour. Hertford, UK: Stobard Davies Ltd. ISBN   978-0-85442-028-5.
  41. 1 2 3 University of Southampton (March 2002). "Factsheet No. 5. Annona" (PDF). Fruits for the Future. Department for International Development, International Centre for Underutilised Crops. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
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