Three vinyl records of different formats, from left to right: a 12 inch LP, a 10 inch LP, a 7 inch single
A phonograph record (also known as a gramophone record, especially in British English) or a vinyl record (for later varieties only) is an analog sound storage medium in the form of a flat disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The groove usually starts near the outside edge and ends near the center of the disc. The stored sound information is made audible by playing the record on a phonograph (or "gramophone", "turntable", or "record player").
Records have been produced in different formats with playing times ranging from a few minutes to around 30 minutes per side. For about half a century, the discs were commonly made from shellac and these records typically ran at a rotational speed of 78 rpm, giving it the nickname "78s" ("seventy-eights"). After the 1940s, "vinyl" records made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) became standard replacing the old 78s and remain so to this day; they have since been produced in various sizes and speeds, most commonly 7-inch discs played at 45 rpm (typically for singles, also called 45s ("forty-fives")), and 12-inch discs played at 33⅓ rpm (known as an LP, "long-playing records", typically for full-length albums) – the latter being the most prevalent format today.
The phonograph record was the primary medium used for music reproduction throughout the 20th century. It had co-existed with the phonograph cylinder from the late 1880s and had effectively superseded it by around 1912. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as the compact cassette were mass-marketed. By the 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the record left the mainstream in 1991.[1] Since the 1990s, records continue to be manufactured and sold on a smaller scale, and during the 1990s and early 2000s were commonly used by disc jockeys (DJs), especially in dance music genres. They were also listened to by a growing number of audiophiles. The phonograph record has made a niche resurgence in the early 21st century,[2][3] growing increasingly popular throughout the 2010s and 2020s.[4]
Phonograph records are generally described by their diameter in inches (12-inch, 10-inch, 7-inch), the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) at which they are played (8+1⁄3, 16+2⁄3, 33+1⁄3, 45, 78),[5] and their time capacity, determined by their diameter and speed (LP [long play], 12-inch disc, 33+1⁄3rpm; EP [extended play], 12-inch disc or 7-inch disc, 33+1⁄3 or 45rpm; Single, 7-inch or 10-inch disc, 45 or 78rpm); their reproductive quality, or level of fidelity (high-fidelity, orthophonic, full-range, etc.); and the number of audio channels (mono, stereo, quad, etc.).[citation needed]
The phrase broken record refers to a malfunction when the needle skips/jumps back to the previous groove and plays the same section over and over again indefinitely.[6][7]
Naming
The various names have included phonograph record (American English), gramophone record (British English), record, vinyl, LP (originally a trademark of Columbia Records), black disc,[8] album, and more informally platter,[9] wax,[10] or liquorice pizza.[11]
Early development
Manufacture of disc records began in the late 19th century, at first competing with earlier cylinder records. Price, ease of use and storage made the disc record dominant by the 1910s. The standard format of disc records became known to later generations as "78s" after their playback speed in revolutions per minute, although that speed only became standardized in the late 1920s. In the late 1940s new formats pressed in vinyl, the 45 rpm single and 33 rpm long playing "LP", were introduced, gradually overtaking the formerly standard "78s" over the next decade. The late 1950s saw the introduction of stereophonic sound on commercial discs.
The phonautograph was invented by 1857 by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville.[12] It could not, however, play back recorded sound,[13] as Scott intended for people to read back the tracings,[14] which he called phonautograms.[15] Prior to this, tuning forks had been used in this way to create direct tracings of the vibrations of sound-producing objects, as by English physicist Thomas Young in 1807.[16]
In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the first phonograph,[17] which etched sound recordings onto phonograph cylinders. Unlike the phonautograph, Edison's phonograph could both record and reproduce sound, via two separate needles, one for each function.[18]
The first disc records
Emile Berliner with disc record gramophone
The first commercially sold disc records were created by Emile Berliner in the 1880s. Emile Berliner improved the quality of recordings while his manufacturing associate Eldridge R. Johnson, who owned a machine shop in Camden, New Jersey, eventually improved the mechanism of the gramophone with a spring motor and a speed regulating governor, resulting in a sound quality equal to Edison's cylinders. Abandoning Berliner's "Gramophone" trademark for legal reasons in the United States, Johnson's and Berliner's separate companies reorganized in 1901 to form the Victor Talking Machine Company in Camden, New Jersey, whose products would come to dominate the market for several decades.[19]
Berliner's Montreal factory, which became the Canadian branch of RCA Victor, still exists. There is a dedicated museum in Montreal for Berliner (Musée des ondes Emile Berliner).[20]
Early disc recordings were produced in a variety of speeds ranging from 60 to 130rpm, and a variety of sizes. As early as 1894, Emile Berliner's United States Gramophone Company was selling single-sided 7-inch discs with an advertised standard speed of "about 70rpm".[21]
One standard audio recording handbook describes speed regulators, or governors, as being part of a wave of improvement introduced rapidly after 1897. A picture of a hand-cranked 1898 Berliner Gramophone shows a governor and says that spring drives had replaced hand drives. It notes that:
The speed regulator was furnished with an indicator that showed the speed when the machine was running so that the records, on reproduction, could be revolved at exactly the same speed...The literature does not disclose why 78rpm was chosen for the phonograph industry, apparently this just happened to be the speed created by one of the early machines and, for no other reason continued to be used.[22]
In 1912, the Gramophone Company set 78rpm as their recording standard, based on the average of recordings they had been releasing at the time, and started selling players whose governors had a nominal speed of 78rpm.[23] By 1925, 78rpm was becoming standardized across the industry. However, the exact speed differed between places with alternating current electricity supply at 60 hertz (cycles per second, Hz) and those at 50Hz. Where the mains supply was 60Hz, the actual speed was 78.26rpm:[24] that of a 60Hz stroboscope illuminating 92-bar calibration markings. Where it was 50Hz, it was 77.92rpm: that of a 50Hz stroboscope illuminating 77-bar calibration markings.[23]
Edison Records Diamond Disc label, early 1920s. Edison Disc Records always ran at 80rpm.
At least one attempt to lengthen playing time was made in the early 1920s. World Records produced records that played at a constant linear velocity, controlled by Noel Pemberton Billing's patented add-on speed governor.[25]
Acoustic recording
Early recordings were made entirely acoustically, the sound was collected by a horn and piped to a diaphragm, which vibrated the cutting stylus. Sensitivity and frequency range were poor, and frequency response was irregular, giving acoustic recordings an instantly recognizable tonal quality. A singer almost had to put their face in the recording horn. A way of reducing resonance was to wrap the recording horn with tape.[26]
Even drums, if planned and placed properly, could be effectively recorded and heard on even the earliest jazz and military band recordings. The loudest instruments such as the drums and trumpets were positioned the farthest away from the collecting horn. Lillian Hardin Armstrong, a member of King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, which recorded at Gennett Records in 1923, remembered that at first Oliver and his young second trumpet, Louis Armstrong, stood next to each other and Oliver's horn could not be heard. "They put Louis about fifteen feet over in the corner, looking all sad."[27][28]
Electrical recording
An electronically recorded disc from Carl Lindström AG, Germany, c.1930
During the first half of the 1920s, engineers at Western Electric, as well as independent inventors such as Orlando Marsh, developed technology for capturing sound with a microphone, amplifying it with vacuum tubes[29] (known as valves in the UK[30]), and then using the amplified signal to drive an electromechanical recording head. Western Electric's innovations resulted in a broader and smoother frequency response, which produced a dramatically fuller, clearer and more natural-sounding recording. Soft or distant sounds that were previously impossible to record could now be captured. Volume was now limited only by the groove spacing on the record and the amplification of the playback device. Victor and Columbia licensed the new electrical system from Western Electric and recorded the first electrical discs during the spring of 1925. The first electrically recorded Victor Red Seal record was Chopin's "Impromptus" and Schubert's "Litanei" performed by pianist Alfred Cortot at Victor's studios in Camden, New Jersey.[29]
A 1926 Wanamaker's ad in The New York Times offers records "by the latest Victor process of electrical recording".[31] It was recognized as a breakthrough; in 1930, a Times music critic stated:
...the time has come for serious musical criticism to take account of performances of great music reproduced by means of the records. To claim that the records have succeeded in exact and complete reproduction of all details of symphonic or operatic performances... would be extravagant... [but] the article of today is so far in advance of the old machines as hardly to admit classification under the same name. Electrical recording and reproduction have combined to retain vitality and color in recitals by proxy.[32]
Examples of Congolese 78rpm recordsA 10-inch blank for making an individually cut one-off recording made from Decelith, a proprietary PVC-based material produced by a German Company ECW that was used to make commercial flexible blanks prior to World War II
The Orthophonic Victrola had an interior folded exponential horn, a sophisticated design informed by impedance-matching and transmission-line theory, and designed to provide a relatively flat frequency response. Victor's first public demonstration of the Orthophonic Victrola on 6 October 1925, at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel was front-page news in The New York Times, which reported:
The audience broke into applause... John Philip Sousa [said]: '[Gentlemen], that is a band. This is the first time I have ever heard music with any soul to it produced by a mechanical talking machine'... The new instrument is a feat of mathematics and physics. It is not the result of innumerable experiments, but was worked out on paper in advance of being built in the laboratory... The new machine has a range of from 100 to 5,000 [cycles per second], or five and a half octaves... The 'phonograph tone' is eliminated by the new recording and reproducing process.[34]
Sales of records plummeted precipitously during the early years of the Great Depression of the 1930s, and the entire record industry in America nearly foundered. In 1932, RCA Victor introduced a basic, inexpensive turntable called the Duo Jr., which was designed to be connected to their radio receivers. According to Edward Wallerstein (the general manager of the RCA Victor Division), this device was "instrumental in revitalizing the industry".[35]
78 rpm materials
The production of shellac records continued throughout the 78rpm era, which lasted until 1948 in industrialized nations.[36]
During the Second World War, the United States Armed Forces produced thousands of 12-inch vinyl 78rpm V-Discs for use by the troops overseas.[37] After the war, the use of vinyl became more practical as new record players with lightweight crystal pickups and precision-ground styli made of sapphire or an exotic osmium alloy proliferated. In late 1945, RCA Victor began offering "De Luxe" transparent red vinylite pressings of some Red Seal classical 78s, at a de luxe price. Later, Decca Records introduced vinyl Deccalite 78s, while other record companies used various vinyl formulations trademarked as Metrolite, Merco Plastic, and Sav-o-flex, but these were mainly used to produce "unbreakable" children's records and special thin vinyl DJ pressings for shipment to radio stations.[38]
78 rpm recording time
The playing time of a phonograph record is directly proportional to the available groove length divided by the turntable speed. Total groove length in turn depends on how closely the grooves are spaced, in addition to the record diameter. At the beginning of the 20th century, the early discs played for two minutes, the same as cylinder records.[39] The 12-inch disc, introduced by Victor in 1903, increased the playing time to three and a half minutes.[40] Because the standard 10-inch 78rpm record could hold about three minutes of sound per side, most popular recordings were limited to that duration.[41] For example, when King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, including Louis Armstrong on his first recordings, recorded 13 sides at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana, in 1923, one side was 2:09 and four sides were 2:52–2:59.[42]
In January 1938, Milt Gabler started recording for Commodore Records, and to allow for longer continuous performances, he recorded some 12-inch discs. Eddie Condon explained: "Gabler realized that a jam session needs room for development." The first two 12-inch recordings did not take advantage of their capability: "Carnegie Drag" was 3m15s; "Carnegie Jump", 2m41s. But at the second session, on 30 April, the two 12-inch recordings were longer: "Embraceable You" was 4m05s; "Serenade to a Shylock", 4m32s.[43][44] Another way to overcome the time limitation was to issue a selection extending to both sides of a single record. Vaudeville stars Gallagher and Shean recorded "Mr. Gallagher and Mr. Shean", written by themselves or, allegedly, by Bryan Foy, as two sides of a 10-inch 78 in 1922 for Victor.[45] Longer musical pieces were released as a set of records. In 1903 His Master's Voice in England made the first complete recording of an opera, Verdi's Ernani, on 40 single-sided discs.[46]
In 1940, Commodore released Eddie Condon and his Band's recording of "A Good Man Is Hard to Find" in four parts, issued on both sides of two 12-inch 78s. The limited duration of recordings persisted from their advent until the introduction of the LP record in 1948. In popular music, the time limit of 3+1⁄2 minutes on a 10-inch 78rpm record meant that singers seldom recorded long pieces. One exception is Frank Sinatra's recording of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Soliloquy", from Carousel, made on 28 May 1946. Because it ran 7m57s, longer than both sides of a standard 78rpm 10-inch record, it was released on Columbia's Masterwork label (the classical division) as two sides of a 12-inch record.[47]
In the 78 era, classical-music and spoken-word items generally were released on the longer 12-inch 78s, about 4–5 minutes per side. For example, on 10 June 1924, four months after the 12 February premier of Rhapsody in Blue, George Gershwin recorded an abridged version of the seventeen-minute work with Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra. It was released on two sides of Victor 55225 and ran for 8m59s.[48]
Record albums
"Record albums" were originally booklets containing collections of multiple disc records of related material, the name being related to photograph albums or scrap albums. [49] German record company Odeon pioneered the album in 1909 when it released the Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky on four double-sided discs in a specially designed package.[46] It was not until the LP era that an entire album of material could be included on a single record.
78 rpm releases in the microgroove era
In 1968, when the hit movie Thoroughly Modern Millie was inspiring revivals of Jazz Age music, Reprise planned to release a series of 78-rpm singles from their artists on their label at the time, called the Reprise Speed Series. Only one disc actually saw release, Randy Newman's "I Think It's Going to Rain Today", a track from his self-titled debut album (with "The Beehive State" on the flipside).[50] Reprise did not proceed further with the series due to a lack of sales for the single, and a lack of general interest in the concept.[51]
In 1978, guitarist and vocalist Leon Redbone released a promotional 78-rpm single featuring two songs ("Alabama Jubilee" and "Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone") from his Champagne Charlie album.[52]
In the same vein of Tin Pan Alley revivals, R. Crumb & His Cheap Suit Serenaders issued a number of 78-rpm singles on their Blue Goose record label. The most familiar of these releases is probably R. Crumb & His Cheap Suit Serenaders' Party Record (1980, issued as a "Red Goose" record on a 12-inch single), with the double-entendre "My Girl's Pussy" on the "A" side and the X-rated "Christopher Columbus" on the "B" side.
In the 1990s Rhino Records issued a series of boxed sets of 78-rpm reissues of early rock and roll hits, intended for owners of vintage jukeboxes. The records were made of vinyl, however, and some of the earlier vintage 78-rpm jukeboxes and record players (the ones that were pre-war) were designed with heavy tone arms to play the hard slate-impregnated shellac records of their time. These vinyl Rhino 78s were softer and would be destroyed by old juke boxes and old record players, but play well on newer 78-capable turntables with modern lightweight tone arms and jewel needles.[53]
A 12-inch LP being played. The stylus is in contact with the surface.Grooves on a modern 33rpm recordUncommon Columbia 7-inch vinyl 33+1⁄3rpm microgroove ZLP from 1948
Research began in 1939, was suspended during World War II, and then resumed in 1945.[57]Columbia Records unveiled the LP at a press conference in the Waldorf-Astoria on 21 June 1948, in two formats: 10 inches (25 centimetres) in diameter, matching that of 78rpm singles, and 12 inches (30 centimetres) in diameter.[57][58][59]
Boston Pops conductor Arthur Fiedler demonstrating the new RCA Victor 45rpm player and record in February 1949
Unwilling to accept and license Columbia's system, in February 1949, RCA Victor released the first 45rpm single, 7inches in diameter with a large center hole. The 45rpm player included a changing mechanism that allowed multiple disks to be stacked, much as a conventional changer handled 78s. Also like 78s, the short playing time of a single 45rpm side meant that long works, such as symphonies and operas, had to be released on multiple 45s instead of a single LP, but RCA Victor claimed that the new high-speed changer rendered side breaks so brief as to be inconsequential. Early 45rpm records were made from either vinyl or polystyrene.[60] They had a playing time of eight minutes.[61]
At first the two systems were marketed in competition, in what was called "The War of the Speeds".[62]
Speeds
Shellac era
Columbia and RCA Victor's competition extended to equipment. Some turntables included spindle size adapters, but other turntables required snap-in inserts like this one to adapt Victor's larger 45rpm spindle size to the smaller spindle size available on nearly all turntables. Shown is one popular design in use for many years.
The older 78 rpm format continued to be mass-produced alongside the newer formats using new materials in decreasing numbers until the summer of 1958 in the U.S., and in a few countries, such as the Philippines and India (both countries issued recordings by the Beatles on 78s), into the late 1960s. For example, Columbia Records' last reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 78rpm records was an album called Young at Heart, issued in November 1954.[64]
Columbia and RCA Victor each pursued their R&D secretly.[65]
The commercial rivalry between RCA Victor and Columbia Records led to RCA Victor's introduction of what it had intended to be a competing vinyl format, the 7-inch (175mm) 45rpm disc, with a much larger center hole. For a two-year period from 1948 to 1950, record companies and consumers faced uncertainty over which of these formats would ultimately prevail in what was known as the "War of the Speeds" (see also Format war). In 1949 Capitol and Decca adopted the new LP format and RCA Victor gave in and issued its first LP in January 1950. The 45rpm size was gaining in popularity, too, and Columbia issued its first 45s in February 1951. By 1954, 200 million 45s had been sold.[66]
The 45rpm discs also came in a variety known as extended play (EP), which achieved up to 10–15 minutes play at the expense of attenuating (and possibly compressing) the sound to reduce the width required by the groove. EP discs were cheaper to produce and were used in cases where unit sales were likely to be more limited or to reissue LP albums on the smaller format for those people who had only 45rpm players. LP albums could be purchased one EP at a time, with four items per EP, or in a boxed set with three EPs or twelve items. The large center hole on 45s allows easier handling by jukebox mechanisms. EPs were generally discontinued by the late 1950s in the U.S. as three- and four-speed record players replaced the individual 45 players. One indication of the decline of the 45rpm EP is that the last Columbia Records reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 45rpm EP records, called Frank Sinatra (Columbia B-2641) was issued on 7 December 1959.[64]
The Seeburg Corporation introduced the Seeburg Background Music System in 1959, using a 16+2⁄3rpm 9-inch record with 2-inch center hole. Each record held 40 minutes of music per side, recorded at 420 grooves per inch.[67]
From the mid-1950s through the 1960s, in the U.S. the common home record player or "stereo" (after the introduction of stereo recording) would typically have had these features: a three- or four-speed player (78, 45, 33+1⁄3, and sometimes 16+2⁄3rpm); with changer, a tall spindle that would hold several records and automatically drop a new record on top of the previous one when it had finished playing, a combination cartridge with both 78 and microgroove styli and a way to flip between the two; and some kind of adapter for playing the 45s with their larger center hole. The adapter could be a small solid circle that fit onto the bottom of the spindle (meaning only one 45 could be played at a time) or a larger adapter that fit over the entire spindle, permitting a stack of 45s to be played.[63]
RCA Victor 45s were also adapted to the smaller spindle of an LP player with a plastic snap-in insert known as a "45 rpm adapter".[63] These inserts were commissioned by RCA president David Sarnoff and were invented by Thomas Hutchison.[citation needed]
Capacitance Electronic Discs were videodiscs invented by RCA, based on mechanically tracked ultra-microgrooves (9541 grooves/inch) on a 12-inch conductive vinyl disc.[68]
The term "high fidelity" was coined in the 1920s by some manufacturers of radio receivers and phonographs to differentiate their better-sounding products claimed as providing "perfect" sound reproduction.[69] The term began to be used by some audio engineers and consumers through the 1930s and 1940s. After 1949 a variety of improvements in recording and playback technologies, especially stereo recordings, which became widely available in 1958, gave a boost to the "hi-fi" classification of products, leading to sales of individual components for the home such as amplifiers, loudspeakers, phonographs, and tape players.[70]High Fidelity and Audio were two magazines that hi-fi consumers and engineers could read for reviews of playback equipment and recordings.
Stereophonic sound
Decoding the left channel
A stereophonic phonograph provides two channels of audio, one left and one right. This is achieved by adding another vertical dimension of movement to the needle in addition to the horizontal one. As a result, the needle now moves not only left and right, but also up and down. But since those two dimensions do not have the same sensitivity to vibration, the difference needs to be evened out by having each channel take half its information from each direction by turning the channels 45 degrees from horizontal.[71]
As a result of the 45-degree turn and some vector addition, it can be demonstrated that out of the new horizontal and vertical directions, one would represent the sum of the two channels, and the other representing the difference. Record makers decide to pick the directions such that the traditional horizontal direction codes for the sum. As a result, an ordinary mono disk is decoded correctly as "no difference between channels", and an ordinary mono player would simply play the sum of a stereophonic record without too much loss of information.[71]
In 1957 the first commercial stereo two-channel records were issued first by Audio Fidelity followed by a translucent blue vinyl on Bel Canto Records, the first of which was a multi-colored-vinyl sampler featuring A Stereo Tour of Los Angeles narrated by Jack Wagner on one side, and a collection of tracks from various Bel Canto albums on the back.[72]
Noise reduction systems
A similar scheme aiming at the high-end audiophile market, and achieving a noise reduction of about 20 to 25dB(A), was the Telefunken/NakamichiHigh-Com IInoise reduction system being adapted to vinyl in 1979. A decoder was commercially available[73] but only one demo record[74] is known to have been produced in this format.
The availability of encoded disks in any of these formats stopped in the mid-1980s.[75]
Yet another noise reduction system for vinyl records was the UC compander system developed by Zentrum Wissenschaft und Technik (ZWT) of Kombinat Rundfunk und Fernsehen[de] (RFT).[76] The system deliberately reduced disk noise by 10 to 12dB(A) only[77] to remain virtually free of recognizable acoustical artifacts even when records were played back without an UC expander. In fact, the system was undocumented yet introduced into the market by several East-German record labels since 1983.[77][78][79] Over 500 UC-encoded titles were produced[78] without an expander becoming available to the public. The only[79] UC expander was built into a turntable manufactured by Phonotechnik Pirna/Zittau.[80]
Formats
Types of records
The usual diameters of the holes on an EP record are 0.286 inches (7.26mm).[81]
Sizes of records in the United States and the UK are generally measured in inches, e.g. 7-inch records, which are generally 45rpm records. LPs were 10-inch records at first, but soon the 12-inch size became by far the most common. Generally, 78s were 10-inch, but 12-inch and 7-inch and even smaller were made—the so-called "little wonders".[82]
Standard formats
A standard wide-hole 7-inch vinyl record from 1978 on its sleeve
↑ Original hole diameters were 0.286″ ±0.001″ for 33+1⁄3 and 78.26rpm records, and 1.504″ ±0.002″ for 45rpm records.[83]
↑ Columbia pressed many 7-inch 33+1⁄3rpm vinyl singles in 1949, but they were dropped in early 1950 due to the popularity of the RCA Victor 45.[84][full citation needed]
Flexi discs were thin flexible records that were distributed with magazines and as promotional gifts from the 1960s to the 1980s.
In March 1949, as RCA Victor released the 45, Columbia released several hundred 7-inch, 33+1⁄3rpm, small-spindle-hole singles. This format was soon dropped as it became clear that the RCA Victor 45 was the single of choice and the Columbia 12-inch LP would be the album of choice.[85] The first release of the 45 came in seven colors: black 47-xxxx popular series, yellow 47-xxxx juvenile series, green (teal) 48-xxxx country series, deep red 49-xxxx classical series, bright red (cerise) 50-xxxx blues/spiritual series, light blue 51-xxxx international series, dark blue 52-xxxx light classics. Most colors were soon dropped in favor of black because of production problems. However, yellow and deep red were continued until about 1952.[86] The first 45rpm record created for sale was "PeeWee the Piccolo" RCA Victor 47-0147 pressed in yellow translucent vinyl at the Sherman Avenue plant, Indianapolis on 7 December 1948, by R. O. Price, plant manager.[87]
In the 1950s and 1960s Ribs were created within Soviet Union countries as a result of cultural censorship. These black market records were of banned music, printed onto x-ray films scavenged from hospital bins.[88]
In the 1970s, the government of Bhutan produced now-collectible postage stamps on playable vinyl mini-discs.[89]
Recent developments
In 2018, an Austrian startup, Rebeat Innovation GmBH, received US$4.8million in funding to develop high definition vinyl records that purport to contain longer play times, louder volumes and higher fidelity than conventional vinyl LPs.[90] Rebeat Innovation, headed by CEO Günter Loibl, has called the format 'HD Vinyl'.[91] The HD process works by converting audio to a digital 3D topography map that is then inscribed onto the vinyl stamper via lasers, resulting in less loss of information. Many critics have expressed skepticism regarding the cost and quality of HD records.[92]
In May 2019, at the Making Vinyl conference in Berlin, Loibl unveiled the software "Perfect Groove" for creating 3D topographic audio data files.[93] The software provides a map for laser-engraving for HD Vinyl stampers. The audio engineering software was created with mastering engineers Scott Hull and Darcy Proper, a four-time Grammy winner. The demonstration offered the first simulations of what HD Vinyl records are likely to sound like, ahead of actual HD vinyl physical record production. Loibl discussed the software "Perfect Groove" at a presentation titled "Vinyl 4.0 The next generation of making records" before offering demonstrations to attendees.[94]
Structure
Comparison of several forms of disk storage showing tracks (tracks not to scale); green denotes start and red denotes end. * Some CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W)/DVD+R(W) recorders operate in ZCLV, CAA or CAV modes.
Increasingly from the early 20th century, and almost exclusively since the 1920s, both sides of the record have been used to carry the grooves. Occasional records have been issued since then with a recording on only one side. In the 1980s Columbia records briefly issued a series of less expensive one-sided 45rpm singles.[95]
The composition of vinyl used to press records (a blend of polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl acetate) has varied considerably over the years. Virgin vinyl is preferred, but during the 1970s energy crisis, as a cost-cutting move, much of the industry began reducing the thickness and quality of vinyl used in mass-market manufacturing. Sound quality suffered, with increased ticks, pops, and other surface noises.[96]RCA Records marketed their lightweight LP as Dynaflex, which, at the time, was considered inferior by many record collectors.[97]
It became commonplace to use recycled vinyl. New or "virgin" heavy/heavyweight (180–220g) vinyl is commonly used for modern audiophile vinyl releases in all genres. Many collectors prefer to have heavyweight vinyl albums, which have been reported to have better sound than normal vinyl because of their higher tolerance against deformation caused by normal play.[98]
Following the vinyl revival of the 21st century, select manufacturers adopted bioplastic-based records due to concerns over the environmental impact of widespread PVC use.[99][100]
One problem with shellac was that the size of the disks tended to be larger because it was limited to 80–100 groove walls per inch before the risk of groove collapse became too high, whereas vinyl could have up to 260 groove walls per inch.[101][102]
Although vinyl records are strong and do not break easily, they scratch due to its soft material sometimes resulting in ruining the record. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backward, creating a "locked groove" that repeats over and over. This is the origin of the phrase "like a broken record" or "like a scratched record", which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself.[103]
A dusty/scratched vinyl record being played. The dust settles into the grooves.
A further limitation of the gramophone record is that fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses; there is more vinyl per second available for fine reproduction of high frequencies at the large-diameter beginning of the groove than exist at the smaller diameters close to the end of the side. At the start of a groove on an LP there are 510mm of vinyl per second traveling past the stylus while the ending of the groove gives 200–210mm of vinyl per second—less than half the linear resolution.[104]
There is controversy about the relative quality of CD sound and LP sound when the latter is heard under the best conditions (see Comparison of analog and digital recording). One technical advantage with vinyl compared to the optical CD is that if correctly handled and stored, the vinyl record can be playable for decades and possibly centuries,[105] which is longer than some versions of the optical CD.[106] For vinyl records to be playable for years to come, they need to be handled with care and stored properly. Guidelines for proper vinyl storage include not stacking records on top of each other, avoiding heat or direct sunlight and placing them in a temperature-controlled area that help prevent vinyl records from warping and scratching. Collectors store their records in a variety of boxes, cubes, shelves and racks.[107]
Sound fidelity
At the time of the introduction of the compact disc (CD) in 1982, the stereo LP pressed in vinyl continued to suffer from a variety of limitations:
The stereo image was not made up of fully discrete left and right channels; each channel's signal coming out of the cartridge contained a small amount of the signal from the other channel, with more crosstalk at higher frequencies. High-quality disc cutting equipment was capable of making a master disc with 30–40dB of stereo separation at 1,000Hz, but the playback cartridges had lesser performance of about 20 to 30dB of separation at 1000Hz, with separation decreasing as frequency increased, such that at 12kHz the separation was about 10–15dB.[108] A common modern view is that stereo isolation must be higher than this to achieve a proper stereo soundstage. However, in the 1950s the BBC determined in a series of tests that only 20–25dB is required for the impression of full stereo separation.[109]
Thin, closely spaced spiral grooves that allow for increased playing time on a 33+1⁄3rpm microgroove LP lead to a tinny pre-echo warning of upcoming loud sounds. The cutting stylus unavoidably transfers some of the subsequent groove wall's impulse signal into the previous groove wall. It is discernible by some listeners throughout certain recordings, but a quiet passage followed by a loud sound allows anyone to hear a faint pre-echo of the loud sound occurring 1.8 seconds ahead of time.[110]
Audiophiles have differed over the relative merits of the LP versus the CD since the digital disc was introduced.[111] Digital sampling can theoretically completely reproduce a sound wave within a given range of frequencies if the sampling rate is high enough.[112] Vinyl's drawbacks, however, include surface noise, less resolution due to a lower dynamic range, and greater sensitivity to handling.[113] Modern anti-aliasing filters and oversampling systems used in digital recordings have eliminated perceived problems observed with early CD players.[114]
There is a theory that vinyl records can audibly represent higher frequencies than compact discs, though most of this is noise and not relevant to human hearing. According to Red Book specifications, the compact disc has a frequency response of 20Hz up to 22,050Hz, and most CD players measure flat within a fraction of a decibel from at least 0Hz to 20kHz at full output. Due to the distance required between grooves, it is not possible for an LP to reproduce as low frequencies as a CD. Additionally, turntable rumble and acoustic feedback obscures the low-end limit of vinyl but the upper end can be, with some cartridges, reasonably flat within a few decibels to 30kHz, with gentle roll-off. Carrier signals of Quad LPs popular in the 1970s were at 30kHz to be out of the range of human hearing. The average human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from 20Hz to a maximum of around 20,000Hz.[115] The upper and lower frequency limits of human hearing vary per person. High frequency sensitivity decreases as a person ages, a process called presbycusis.[116]
Preservation
45rpm records, like this single from 1956, usually had a chosen A-side, for radio promotion as a possible hit, with a flip side or B-side by the same artist—though some had two A-sides.
As the playing of gramophone records causes gradual degradation of the recording, they are best preserved by transferring them onto other media and playing the records as rarely as possible. They need to be stored on edge, and do best under environmental conditions that most humans would find comfortable.[117] The longevity and optimal performance of vinyl records can be improved through certain accessories and cleaning supplies. Slipmats provide a soft and cushioned surface between the record and the turntable platter, minimizing friction and preventing potential scratches or damage to the vinyl surface.[118]
Where old disc recordings are considered to be of artistic or historic interest, from before the era of tape or where no tape master exists, archivists play back the disc on suitable equipment and record the result, typically onto a digital format, which can be copied and manipulated to remove analog flaws without any further damage to the source recording. For example, Nimbus Records uses a specially built horn record player to transfer 78s.[119] Anyone can do this using a standard record player with a suitable pickup, a phono-preamp (pre-amplifier) and a typical personal computer. However, for accurate transfer, professional archivists carefully choose the correct stylus shape and diameter, tracking weight, equalisation curve and other playback parameters and use high-quality analogue-to-digital converters.[120]
As an alternative to playback with a stylus, a recording can be read optically, processed with software that calculates the velocity that the stylus would be moving in the mapped grooves and converted to a digital recording format. This does no further damage to the disc and generally produces a better sound than normal playback. This technique also has the potential to allow for reconstruction of broken or otherwise damaged discs.[121]
Groove recordings, first designed in the final quarter of the 19th century, held a predominant position for nearly a century—withstanding competition from reel-to-reel tape, the 8-track cartridge, and the compact cassette. The widespread popularity of Sony's Walkman was a factor that contributed to the vinyl's lessening usage in the 1980s.[122]
In 1988, the compact disc surpassed the gramophone record in unit sales. Vinyl records experienced a sudden decline in popularity between 1988 and 1991,[123] when the major label distributors restricted their return policies, which retailers had been relying on to maintain and swap out stocks of relatively unpopular titles. First the distributors began charging retailers more for new products if they returned unsold vinyl, and then they stopped providing any credit at all for returns. Retailers, fearing they would be stuck with anything they ordered, only ordered proven, popular titles that they knew would sell, and devoted more shelf space to CDs and cassettes. Record companies also removed many vinyl titles from production and distribution, further undermining the availability of the format and leading to the closure of pressing plants. This rapid decline in the availability of records accelerated the format's decline in popularity, and is seen by some as a deliberate ploy to make consumers switch to CDs, which unlike today, were more profitable for the record companies.[124][125][126][127]
The more modern CD format held numerous advantages over the record such as its portability, digital audio and its elimination of background hiss and surface noise, instant switching and searching of tracks, longer playing time, lack of continuous degradation (analog formats wear out as they get played),[128] programmability (e.g. shuffle, repeat),[129] and ability to be played on and copied to a personal computer.[130] In spite of their flaws, records continued to have enthusiastic supporters, partly due to a preference of its "warmer" sound and its larger sleeve artwork.[131] Records continued to be format of choice by disc jockeys in dance clubs during the 1990s and 2000s due to its better mixing capabilities.[131]
Revival era
A niche resurgence of vinyl records began in the late 2000s, mainly among rock fans.[132] The Entertainment Retailers Association in the United Kingdom found in 2011 that consumers were willing to pay on average £16.30 (€19.37, US$25.81) for a single vinyl record, as opposed to £7.82 (€9.30, US$12.38) for a CD and £6.80 (€8.09, US$10.76) for a digital download.[133] The resurgence accelerated throughout the 2010s,[134] and in 2015 reached $416 million revenue in the US, their highest level since 1988.[135] As of 2017, it comprised 14% of all physical album sales.[136] According to the RIAA's midyear report in 2020, phonograph record revenues surpassed those of CDs for the first time since the 1980s.[137]
In 2021, Taylor Swift sold 102,000 copies of her ninth studio album Evermore on vinyl in one week. The sales of the record beat the largest sales in one week on vinyl since Nielsen started tracking vinyl sales in 1991.[138] The sales record was previously held by Jack White, who sold 40,000 copies of his second solo release, Lazaretto, on vinyl in its first week of release in 2014.[139]
Approximately 180 million LP records are produced annually at global pressing plants, as of 2021.[140]
As of 2017[update], 48 record pressing facilities exist worldwide. The increased popularity of the record has led to the investment in new and modern record-pressing machines.[141] Only two producers of lacquer master discs remain: Apollo Masters in California, and MDC in Japan.[142] On 6 February 2020, a fire destroyed the Apollo Masters plant. According to the Apollo Masters website, their future is still uncertain.[143]Hand Drawn Pressing opened in 2016 as the world's first fully automated record pressing plant.[144]
Less common recording formats
VinylVideo
VinylVideo is a format to store a low resolution black and white video on a vinyl record alongside encoded audio.[145][146][147]
A phonograph, later called a gramophone, and since the 1940s a record player, or more recently a turntable, is a device for the mechanical and analogue reproduction of sound. The sound vibration waveforms are recorded as corresponding physical deviations of a helical or spiral groove engraved, etched, incised, or impressed into the surface of a rotating cylinder or disc, called a record. To recreate the sound, the surface is similarly rotated while a playback stylus traces the groove and is therefore vibrated by it, faintly reproducing the recorded sound. In early acoustic phonographs, the stylus vibrated a diaphragm that produced sound waves coupled to the open air through a flaring horn, or directly to the listener's ears through stethoscope-type earphones.
In music, a single is a type of release of a song recording of fewer tracks than an album or LP record, typically one or two tracks. A single can be released for sale to the public in a variety of physical or digital formats. Singles may be standalone tracks or connected to an artist's album, and in the latter case would often have at least one single release before the album itself, called lead singles.
An extended play (EP) is a musical recording that contains more tracks than a single but fewer than an album or LP record. Contemporary EPs generally contain up to eight tracks and have a playing time of 15 to 30 minutes. An EP is usually less cohesive than an album and more "non-committal".
RCA Records is an American record label owned by Sony Music Entertainment, a subsidiary of Sony Group Corporation.
The twelve-inch single is a type of vinyl gramophone record that has wider groove spacing and shorter playing time with a "single" or a few related sound tracks on each surface, compared to LPs which have several songs on each side. It is named for its 12-inch (300 mm) diameter that was intended for LPs. This technical adaptation allows for louder levels to be cut on the disc by the mastering engineer, which in turn gives a wider dynamic range, and thus better sound quality. This record type, which is claimed to have been accidentally discovered by Tom Moulton, is commonly used in disco and dance music genres, where DJs use them to play in clubs. They are played at either 33+1⁄3 or 45 rpm. The conventional 7-inch single usually holds three or four minutes of music at full volume. The 12-inch LP sacrifices volume for extended playing time.
The Edison Diamond Disc Record is a type of phonograph record marketed by Thomas A. Edison, Inc. on their Edison Record label from 1912 to 1929. They were named Diamond Discs because the matching Edison Disc Phonograph was fitted with a permanent conical diamond stylus for playing them. Diamond Discs were incompatible with lateral-groove disc record players, e.g. the Victor Victrola, the disposable steel needles of which would damage them while extracting hardly any sound. Uniquely, they are just under 1⁄4 in thick.
An album is a collection of audio recordings issued on a medium such as compact disc (CD), vinyl (record), audio tape, or digital. Albums of recorded sound were developed in the early 20th century as individual 78 rpm records (78s) collected in a bound book resembling a photo album; this format evolved after 1948 into single vinyl long-playing (LP) records played at 33+1⁄3 rpm.
The overwhelming majority of records manufactured have been of certain sizes, playback speeds, and appearance. However, since the commercial adoption of the gramophone record, a wide variety of records have also been produced that do not fall into these categories, and they have served a variety of purposes.
Record collecting is the hobby of collecting sound recordings, usually of music, but sometimes poetry, reading, historical speeches, and ambient noises. Although the typical focus is on vinyl records, all formats of recorded music can be collected.
Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording.
RIAA equalization is a specification for the recording and playback of phonograph records, established by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The purposes of the equalization are to permit greater recording times, to improve sound quality, and to reduce the groove damage that would otherwise arise during playback.
The history of sound recording - which has progressed in waves, driven by the invention and commercial introduction of new technologies — can be roughly divided into four main periods:
The LP is an analog sound storage medium, specifically a phonograph record format characterized by: a speed of 33+1⁄3 rpm; a 12- or 10-inch diameter; use of the "microgroove" groove specification; and a vinyl composition disk. Introduced by Columbia Records in 1948, it was soon adopted as a new standard by the entire US record industry and, apart from a few relatively minor refinements and the important later addition of stereophonic sound in 1957, it remained the standard format for record albums during a period in popular music known as the album era. LP was originally a trademark of Columbia and competed against the smaller 7-inch sized "45" or "single" format by RCA Victor, eventually ending up on top. Today in the vinyl revival era, a large majority of records are based on the LP format and hence the LP name continues to be in use today to refer to new records.
This article details a comparison of audio recording mediums.
The Gray Audograph was a dictation machine format introduced in 1945. It recorded sound by pressing grooves into soft vinyl discs.
The AES coarse-groove calibration discs (AES-S001-064) are a boxed set of two identical discs, one for routine use, one for master reference. The intent is to characterize the reproduction chain for the mass transfer of coarse-groove records to digital media, much like using a photographic calibration reference in image work.
Electrical transcriptions are special phonograph recordings made exclusively for radio broadcasting, which were widely used during the "Golden Age of Radio". They provided material—from station-identification jingles and commercials to full-length programs—for use by local stations, which were affiliates of one of the radio networks.
Electric music technology refers to musical instruments and recording devices that use electrical circuits, which are often combined with mechanical technologies. Examples of electric musical instruments include the electro-mechanical electric piano, the electric guitar, the electro-mechanical Hammond organ and the electric bass. All of these electric instruments do not produce a sound that is audible by the performer or audience in a performance setting unless they are connected to instrument amplifiers and loudspeaker cabinets, which made them sound loud enough for performers and the audience to hear. Amplifiers and loudspeakers are separate from the instrument in the case of the electric guitar, electric bass and some electric organs and most electric pianos. Some electric organs and electric pianos include the amplifier and speaker cabinet within the main housing for the instrument.
The Discography of American Historical Recordings (DAHR) is a database catalog of master recordings made by American record companies during the 78rpm era. The 78rpm era was the time period in which any flat disc records were being played at a speed of 78 revolutions per minute. The DAHR provides some of these original recordings, free of charge, via audio streaming, along with access to the production catalogs of those same companies. DAHR is part of the American Discography Project (ADP), and is funded and operated in partnership by the University of California, Santa Barbara, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the Packard Humanities Institute.
In the field of sound recording and reproduction, a track listing is a list created in connection with a recorded medium to indicate the contents of that medium and their order. The most typical usage of a track listing is for songs or other discrete segments on an album.
↑ Bob Evans (8 November 1999). "A Whole New Ball Game". Information Week. p.176. when broken or scratched ... repeating the same music or words over and over again
↑ Ober, Norman (1973). "You Can Thank Emil Berliner for the Shape Your Record Collection Is In". Music Educators Journal, Vol. 60, No. 4 (December 1973), pp. 38–40.
↑ Read, Oliver (1952). "History of Acoustical Recording". The Recording and Reproduction of Sound (revised and enlarged 2nded.). Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams. pp.12, 14, 15.
↑ Frank Andrews; Arthur Badrock; Edward S. Walker (1992). World Records, Vocalion "W" Fetherflex and Penny Phono Recordings: A listing. Spalding, Lincolnshire: The Authors.
↑ Rick Kennedy, Jelly Roll, Bix, and Hoagy: Gennett Studios and the Birth of Recorded Jazz, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994, pp. 63–64.
1 2 Jacques Chailley – 40,000 Years of Music: Man in Search of Music – 1964 p. 144, "On March 21st, 1925, Alfred Cortot made for the Victor Talking Machine Co., in Camden, New Jersey, the first classical recording to employ a new technique, thanks to which the gramophone was to play an important part in musical life: electric ..."
↑ Welch, Walter L.; Burt, Leah (1994). From Tinfoil to Stereo: The Acoustic Years of the Recording Industry, 1877–1929. University Press of Florida. ISBN0-8130-1317-8.
↑ Goldmark, Peter. Maverick inventor; My Turbulent Years at CBS. New York: Saturday Review Press, 1973.
↑ Ben Sisario (6 October 2012). "Howard H. Scott, a Developer of the LP, Dies at 92". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 October 2012. Howard H. Scott, who was part of the team at Columbia Records that introduced the long-playing vinyl record in 1948 before going on to produce albums with the New York Philharmonic, Glenn Gould, Isaac Stern and many other giants of classical music, died on Sept. 22 in Reading, Pa. He was 92. ...
1 2 3 "The 45 Adaptor". ARChive of Contemporary Music, or "Would You Take My Mind Out for a Walk". 20 March 2008. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016.
1 2 3 (Book), "Frank Sinatra: The Columbia Years: 1943–1952: The Complete Recordings", unnumbered at back.
↑ Reed, Peter Hugh (1958). American record guide, p. 205.
↑ Nakamichi High-Com II Noise Reduction System - Owner's Manual - Bedienungsanleitung - Mode d'Emploi (in English, German, and French). 1980. 0D03897A, O-800820B. Archived from the original on 10 November 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2017. (NB. This compander exists in two identically named but slightly different versions; only one of them has a dedicated "Disk" setting, the other one instead has an additional setting to combine subsonic with MPX filtering. In this model, High-Com II encoded vinyl disks have to be played back through the "Rec" setting of a connected tape deck.)
↑ The Stillness of Dawn - High-Com II Demonstration Record (A limited edition not-for-sale HighCom II encoded audiophile vinyl record and corresponding leaflet. This LP contains 400Hz, 0dB, 200nWb/m calibration tones as well.). Nakamichi. 1979. NAK-100. Track list: Side A: Philharmonia Hungarica (Zoltan Rozsnyai): 1. Bizet (Carmen prelude) [2:30] 2. Berlioz (Rákóczi March from Damnation of Faust) [4:40] 3. Rimsky-Korsakov (Procession of the Nobles from Mlada) [4:55] 3. Brahms (Hungarian Dance No. 5) [4:30] 4. 400Hz calibration tone. [1:00], Side B: S.M.A. Sextet (Sherman Martin Austin): 1. Impressions (John Coltrane) [5:00] 2. Mimosa (Dennis Irwin) [5:52] 3. Little B's Poem (Bobby Hutcherson) [3:12] 4. 400Hz calibration tone [1:00]. […] Quotes from the sleeve: […] Thousands of man-hours were spent listening, adjusting, optimizing—until harpsichords sound like harpsichords without mutilated transients, until bass viols sound like bass viols without harmonic distortion, until triangles sound lean and crisp without breathiness. The result is High-Com II, the world's finest two-band noise-reduction system. […] High-Com II is the first audiophile noise-reduction system that achieves professional quality. […] Listen especially for the dramatic reduction in surface noise on this High-Com II encoded record. There is no residual hiss; the ticks, pops, and crackles that mar conventional discs are absent. So is turntable rumble. The loud passages emerge with unprecedented clarity since they need not be recorded at so high and distortion-producing a level. […] Between programs, there is utter silence. […] We also suggest you listen closely for sounds of "breathing" and noise pumping. This common fault of noise-reduction systems has been eliminated in High-Com II. Listen also to High-Com II's remarkable ability to accurately preserve musical transients. They are neither muted nor exaggerated nor edgy as with other companders. This accuracy of reproduction—on all types of music, at all frequencies, and at all levels—is what distinguishes High-Com II from other noise-reduction systems. […] Unlike simple companders, High-Com II is optimized differently for signals of different strength and different frequencies. Low-level signals are processed for maximum noise reduction, high-level ones for minimum distortion. This sophisticated technique assumes maximum dynamic range with minimum "breathing" and other audible side effects. […] Sound of extraordinary dynamic range—a background free from surface noise, pops, clicks, rumble, and groove echo—the mightiest crescendo, free from distortion. Sound without breathing, pumping, or other ill side effects.
↑ Hohmuth, Gerhard (1987). "Verbesserte Schallplattenwiedergabe durch UC-Kompressor". radio fernsehen elektronik (rfe) (in German). Vol.36, no.5. Berlin: VEB Verlag Technik[de]. pp.311–313. ISSN0033-7900. (3 pages) (NB. Includes a description of the UC compander system.)
1 2 Milde, Helmut (1987). Written at Dresden, Germany. "Das UC-Kompandersystem"(PDF). radio fernsehen elektronik (rfe) (in German). Vol.36, no.9. Berlin, Germany: VEB Verlag Technik[de]. pp.592–595. ISSN0033-7900. Archived(PDF) from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021. (4 pages) (NB. Includes a detailed description of the UC system characteristics and a reference schematic developed by Milde, similar to the circuitry used in the Ziphona HMK-PA2223. According to the author he later also developed an improved version utilizing more modern ICs.)
1 2 Wonneberg, Frank[in German] (2000). Vinyl Lexikon - Wahrheit und Legende der Schallplatte - Fachbegriffe, Sammlerlatein und Praxistips (in German) (1ed.). Lexikon Imprint Verlag. ISBN3-89602226-1. UC […] Vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten und dem ZWT Rundfunk und Fernsehen der DDR entwickelter, breitbandiger Kompander zur Codierung von Schallplatten. Das UC-Kompandersystem (universal compatible) nutzt die Möglichkeit durch den Einsatz sogenannter Logarithmierer, den Verstärkungsvorgang fließend zu gestalten und ein abruptes Umschalten bei niedrigen Signalpegeln zu vermeiden. Durch einen sich kontinuierlich wandelnden Kompressionsgrad von 5:3 (0dB) bis 1:1 (−20dB) erzielt man eine effektive Störunterdrückung von 10dB. Die Expansion erfolgt spiegelverkehrt. Auch ohne den Einsatz eines entsprechenden UC-Expanders bleiben durch das"fließende"Verfahren die Ein- und Ausklingvorgänge in ihrer Homogenität und auch die Raumabbildung der Tonaufzeichnung weitestgehend erhalten. Die gewinnbringende Nutzung des UC-Kompanderverfahrens stellt den Anwender vor ein kaum lösbares Problem, da die ökonomischen Rahmenbedingungen und die zentrale Planung der Geräteentwicklung in der DDR die Herstellung eines Serienproduktes untergruben. Letztlich existieren nur einige Labormuster in den Händen der an dem Verfahren beteiligten Entwickler. Ein Versuch nach 1990, mit dem Verfahren erneut Fuß zu fassen, scheiterte an der international bereits von der Industrie vollzogenen, umfassenden Digitalisierung der Heimwiedergabe. Vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten wurden in den Jahren 1983 bis 1990 weit mehr als 500 verschiedene UC-codierte Schallplatten der Marken Eterna[de] und Amiga veröffentlicht. Alle entsprechend aufgezeichneten Schallplatten tragen im Spiegel der Auslaufrille zusätzlich zur Matrizengravur ein U. Auf eine äußere, gut sichtbare Kennzeichnung wurde, im Sinne der hervorragenden Kompatibilität des Verfahrens bei einer konventionellen Wiedergabe und in Ermangelung verfügbarer UC-Expander für den Heimgebrauch, verzichtet.
1 2 Müller, Claus (2018). Meinhardt, Käthe (ed.). "UC-Expander" (in German). Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021. p.4: […] In den 1980er Jahren wurden in der DDR vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten unter dem Label ETERNA[de] viele sehr gute Aufnahmen klassischer Musik veröffentlicht. Diese Platten wurden, nicht wie sonst üblich, in Lackfolie sondern direkt in eine Metallscheibe geschnitten (DMM - Direkt Metal Mastering). Das ersparte zwei Zwischenkopien im Produktionsablauf, was nicht nur schneller ging, sondern auch zu einer erheblich besseren Qualität führte. Zur weiteren Steigerung der Klangqualität wurde das UC-Kompandersystem (UC - Universal Compatible) eingesetzt. Damit wurden beim Schneiden der Platte die leisen Töne etwas lauter und die lauten entsprechend leiser überspielt. Wendet man bei der Wiedergabe das umgekehrte Verfahren an, werden mit den leisen Tönen auch die Störungen abgeschwächt und die lauten Stellen verzerren nicht und nutzen sich weniger ab. All das geschah so vorsichtig, dass man die Platte auch ohne Expander bei der Wiedergabe noch genussvoll anhören konnte. Zum Glück, denn es hätte sowieso nur einen Plattenspieler gegeben, der über eine entsprechende Schaltung verfügte und der war sehr teuer. Vermutlich aus diesem Grund hat man auf eine weithin sichtbare Kennzeichnung der mit diesem Verfahren aufgenommenen Platten verzichtet. Nur in der Gravur zwischen den Auslaufrillen kann man am angehängten U den Einsatz des Kompressors erkennen […] Das vorliegende Programm erfüllt die Aufgabe eines UC-Expanders, mit dem Sie eine im wav-format digitalisierte Schallplattenaufnahme bearbeiten können, um nun endlich den Klang genießen zu können, den Sie damals erworben haben. Bis dahin gibt es aber noch eine Schwierigkeit. Zur richtigen Einstellung des Programmes benötigen Sie eine Schallplatte, auf der ein Bezugspegelton aufgezeichnet ist, wie das bei den, dem Plattenspieler beiliegenen, Testplatten der Fall war. […] (NB. Describes a software implementation of an UC expander as a program "UCExpander.exe" for Microsoft Windows. Also shows a picture of the "U" engraving in the silent inner groove indicating UC encoded vinyl disks.)
↑ Seiffert, Michael; Renz, Martin (eds.). "Ziphona HMK-PA2223". Hifi-Museum. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021. (NB. Has pictures of a VEB Phonotechnik Pirna/Zittau Ziphona HMK-PA2223, a tangential armdirect drive turntable with built-in UC expander, with the frontpanel showing a "UC" logo (for "Universal Compander").)
↑ Fritz, Jose. "180 grams "Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine , Arcane Radio Trivia, 23 January 2009. Accessed 26 January 2009. "The basic measurement behind those grams is thickness. It's been said to be less noisy, which really has more to do with the grade of vinyl."
↑ Shay Sayre, Cynthia King, Entertainment and Society: Influences, Impacts, and Innovations (2010), p. 558: "The phrase 'sounding like a broken record' has been used to describe a person who says the same thing over and over again; the reference is to old records that would skip and repeat owing to scratch marks on the vinyl."
↑ "Disc Recording and Playback". In Glen Ballou (editor), Handbook for Sound Engineers: The New Audio Cyclopedia: Howard W. Sams & Company. p. 1037 §27.9.4. ISBN0-672-21983-2
↑ Plasketes, George (1992). "Romancing the Record: The Vinyl De-Evolution and Subcultural Evolution". Journal of Popular Culture. 26 (1): 110,112. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1992.00109.x.
↑ Swedish public service television teletext, 12.December.2016, page 150 "SVT Text - Sida 150". Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016. in Swedish (original text) – "Allt fler köper vinylskivor. Trenden med att köpa vinylskivor fortsätter. Sedan 2006 har försäljningen globalt ökat från drygt 3,1 miljoner sålda exemplar jämfört med 31,5 miljoner sålda exemplar 2015. Trots att allt fler vinylskivor säljs är det dock bara en väldigt liten del av skivförsäljningen. I Sverige såldes det förra året 384.000 vinylskivor jämfört med 3.342.000 cd-skivor. De artister som säljer mest är oftast äldre artister och skivor. Mest såld i år är David Bowies sista skiva Black-star. Andra populära artister är Beatles, Led Zeppelin och Adele." – or in English – "More and more buy vinyl records. The trend to buy vinyl records continues. Since 2006 has the global sales increased from approximately 3.1 million sold records to 31.5 million in 2015. Despite this, is it still a small part of the total record sale. In Sweden was 384.000 vinyl records sold last year (=2015) compared to 3.342.000 CD records. The artists who sell most ar usually older artists and records.(comment - bad Swedish in original text is reflected and translated) Most sold in this year (=2016) was David Bowie's last record, Black-star. Other popular artists are Beatles, Led Zeppelin and Adele" (a screenshot of the teletext page exist and can be uploaded, if allowed at Commons and if requested).
↑ Czukay, Holger (23 March 2018) [2017]. "Cinema" (Limiteded.). Grönland Records. LPGRON180. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021. (NB. Retrospective box set containing 5 LPs (compilation), 1 DVD-V, 1 VinylVideo 7"-single ("Fragrance", "Holger on his first video recording", "Holger and Jaki"), a digital audio download code and a booklet. The CD version of the set (CDGRON180) does not contain the VinylVideo record.)
↑ Riddle, Randy A. (29 July 2018). "Vinyl Video". Randy Collects. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
College Physics, Sears, Zemansky, Young, 1974, LOC #73-21135, chapter: "Acoustic Phenomena"
Powell, James R., Jr. The Audiophile's Technical Guide to 78rpm, Transcription, and Microgroove Recordings. 1992; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN0-9634921-2-8
Powell, James R., Jr. Broadcast Transcription Discs. 2001; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN0-9634921-4-4
Powell, James R., Jr. and Randall G. Stehle. Playback Equalizer Settings for 78rpm Recordings. Third Edition. 1993, 2001, 2007; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN0-9634921-3-6
Scholes, Percy A. The Oxford Companion to Music. Ninth edition, Oxford University Press, 1955.
From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph by Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch
The Fabulous Phonograph by Roland Gelatt, published by Cassell & Company, 1954 rev. 1977 ISBN0-304-29904-9
Where Have All the Good Times Gone?: The Rise and Fall of the Record Industry Louis Barfe.
Pressing the LP Record by Ellingham, Niel, published at 1 Bruach Lane, PH16 5DG, Scotland.
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