There are 4 stages in the history of Yakut writing systems:
At the end of the XVII century records of Yakut words were made, and in the 19th century. A number of Cyrillic alphabets emerged. So, in the second edition of the book by Nicolaes Witsen’s “Noord en Oost Tartarye” (Northern and Eastern Tataria), with a translation of the prayer “Our Father” into the Yakut language and some of the Yakut vocabulary, written in an approximate transcription in Latin, was published in 1705.
The first real Yakut alphabet appeared in 1819 along with the translation of the "Сокращенный катехизис" (Abridged Catechism) published in Irkutsk. According to experts, "it was, on the whole, a primitive adaptation of the Russian alphabet for printing the Yakut text, which did not take into account the specifics of the Yakut language." [1]
Almost half a century later, a new Yakut alphabet developed by academician Otto von Böhtlingk and published in his famous work "Über die Sprache der Jakuten" appeared, in which all phonemes received their designation in 29 letters: А а, Ӓ ӓ, О о, Ӧ ӧ, І і, Ы ы, У у, Ӱ ӱ, К к, Х х, Г г, Ҕ ҕ, Ҥ ҥ, Т т, Д д, Н н, Ч ч, Џ џ, Н' н', П п, Б б, М м, Ј ј, Ɉ ɉ, Р р, Л л, L l, С с, Һ һ.
The scientist arranged the letters (mostly Russian) as in Sanskrit, i.e. vowels come first, then consonants, from guttural to aspirated. Consonant length is indicated by letter doubling, diphthongs by vowel combinations, and long vowels are indicated by a bar above the letter. Despite certain shortcomings, some socio-political literature, samples of folklore texts, etc. were published in this alphabet.
In 1858, D. V. Khitrov compiled a new alphabet of 29 letters: А а, Б б, Г г, Д д, Ԫ ԫ, Е е, Ё ё, И и, І і, Й й, К к, Л л, М м, Н н, Ҥ ҥ, О о, П п, Р р, С с, Т т, У у, Х х, Ч ч, Ы ы, Э э, Ю ю, Я я, ъ, ь. Vowel length was indicated by a macron over the letter.
However, the principle of "one sound – one letter" was not observed, and the same phoneme was indicated by several letters. Despite the imperfections of the alphabet, it was he who came to the taste of the ministers of the church, they used it for printing liturgical literature and teaching children in the seminary.
According to the Yakut linguist S. A. Novgorodov, the main drawback of the Bötlingk alphabet was an overabundance of superscript characters, which led to difficulties in writing and typographic typing. Khitrov's alphabet was poorly adapted to the phonetics of the Yakut language and "was adapted to the Russian reader". [2]
In 1917, a Yakut student at Petrograd University, S. A. Novgorodov, compiled the Yakut alphabet based on the International Phonetic Alphabet. In the summer of the same year, the Yakut national and public organizations discussed the Novgorodov alphabet and spoke positively about it. Soon, the first primer was published in this alphabet, but since there were no necessary fonts in Yakutsk, the alphabet of the primer had to be changed based on the technical capabilities of the printing house. [2] The alphabet of this edition included the following letters: a, b, c, d, e, g, ʁ, h, i, ie, j, ɟ, k, l, ʎ, m, n, ng, nj, ɔ, oe, p, q, r, s, t, ɯ, ɯa, u, uo, w, y, з [3]
The alphabet of S. A. Novgorodov consisted of 33 letters, including ligatures for diphthongs (/ɯ͡a/ – ꭠ, /i͡e/ – ꭡ, /u͡o/ – ꭣ, and /y͡ø/ – w. [4] ), and did not have any diacritics and capital letters. The length of vowels was indicated by a colon after the letters. The publication of the first Yakut primers, books for reading, school textbooks and grammar, as well as scientific, pedagogical and fiction literature began on this alphabet. The new script was used in the mass education of children at school.
In the 1920/21 academic year, this alphabet was officially introduced into school teaching, and the Yakut-language newspaper Manchaary was translated into it. In 1923, fonts were made for the "original" version of the Novgorodov alphabet, and book publishing was transferred to a new font. At the same time, a number of Yakut scientists and writers (in particular, Aleksey Kulakovskiy) advocated the abolition of this alphabet and the introduction of writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet. [2] [5] [6]
In 1924, a broad discussion took place on the improvement of the Novgorodov alphabet. Among its shortcomings were the lack of capitalization and punctuation; the presence of special characters for diphthongs, complicating the alphabet; graphic monotony of the text (for example – sɯmɯ꞉t, ɯmɯ꞉). As a result, the Yakut Writing Council decided to introduce capital letters and punctuation marks into the alphabet, as well as change the style of a number of characters. However, due to the lack of fonts, it was not possible to transfer the publishing business to a new version of the alphabet. [2]
In 1925, the inscription of three more characters was replaced in the alphabet. However, by this time a campaign had begun for the creation of a unified Turkic alphabet, and the order for new fonts was suspended. As a result of the changes in 1924 and 1925, in practice, only the handwritten text was affected, and the printed text was typed in the 1923 font. This situation continued until 1929. [2]
After 1929, Novgorodov's alphabet was replaced by a form of Latin script based on the Yanalif. [7] During the period of the cultural revolution, which required the maximum use of native languages, and, consequently, the exceptional flexibility of writing, the question was raised of unifying the Yakut alphabet with the "New Turkic alphabet" (Yanalif). The Committee of the Yakut Writing, created by the government, was instructed to study the issue of the new Yakut alphabet in all its aspects.
The Yakut Writing Committee set itself two tasks: 1) to unify the Yakut Latinized (Novgorod) alphabet with the Yanalif and 2) to put it into practice as soon as possible. The Committee outlined ways to resolve controversial issues. Thus the following was accepted and sanctioned:
Quite specifically, the committee raised the question of designating long vowels.
The final decision on the issue was made by the Yakut Central Executive Committee only on May 9, 1929. The adopted government decree stated that only complete unification would put a limit to the fluctuations to which the alphabet is subject and which slow down the introduction and development of the Yakut writing.
Yakut alphabet 1929–1939: [8]
| A a | B ʙ | C c | Ç ç | D d | E e | G g | Ƣ ƣ | H h | I i | J j | K k | L l | Lj lj |
| M m | N n | Nj nj | Ꞑ ꞑ | O o | Ө ө | P p | Q q | R r | S s | T t | U u | Y y |  |
Long vowels in this alphabet were indicated by doubling a letter, and diphthongs by a combination of two letters.
In 1936, a draft of a new reform of the Yakut alphabet was developed. According to the project, the alphabet was to include letters: A a, B в, C c, Ç ç, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, 
, M m, N n, Ŋ ŋ, Ꞑ ꞑ, O o, P p, Q q, Ƣ ƣ, R r, S s, Ş ş, T t, U u, V v, Y y, З з, Ƶ ƶ, 
, Ө ө. Long vowels were proposed to be denoted by a macron. However, this project was never implemented. [9]
In the second half of the 1930s, the process of translating the writings of the peoples of the USSR into Cyrillic began. In 1938, preparations began for the creation of the Yakut Cyrillic alphabet. Employees of the Yakut Research Institute of Language and Culture, as well as scientists from Leningrad, took part in the development of the project. On March 23, 1939, by decree of the People's Commissar of Education of the USSR, the new Yakut alphabet was approved.
Today, the Yakut language uses an alphabet based on the Cyrillic alphabet, which contains the entire Russian alphabet, plus five additional letters: Ҕҕ, Ҥҥ, Өө, Һһ, Үү and two digraphs: Дь дь, Нь нь. 4 diphthongs are also used: уо, ыа, иэ, үө (not included in the alphabet).
| А а | Б б | В в | Г г | Ҕ ҕ | Д д | Дь дь | Е е | Ё ё | Ж ж |
| З з | И и | Й й | К к | Л л | М м | Н н | Ҥ ҥ | Нь нь | О о |
| Ө ө | П п | Р р | С с | Һ һ | Т т | У у | Ү ү | Ф ф | Х х |
| Ц ц | Ч ч | Ш ш | Щ щ | Ъ ъ | Ы ы | Ь ь | Э э | Ю ю | Я я |
| IPA | 1819–1858 | 1851–1917 (Böhtlingk Alphabet) | 1858–1917 (D. V. Khitrov Alphabet) | 1917–1929 (Novgorodov Alphabet) | 1929–1939 (Yañalif) | 1939–Present | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| a | Аа | Аа | Аа | a | Aa | Аа | |
| b | Бб | Бб | Бб | b | Bʙ | Бб | |
| v | Вв | – | – | – | – | Вв | found only in Russian loanwords |
| ɡ | Гг | Гг | Гг | g | Gg | Гг | |
| ɣ,ʁ | – | Ҕҕ | – | ʃ | Ƣƣ | Ҕҕ | |
| d | Дд | Дд | Дд | d | Dd | Дд | |
| ɟ | – | Џџ | Ԫԫ | з | Çç | Дьдь | |
| e,je | Ее | – | Ее | – | – | Ее | found only in Russian loanwords |
| jo | – | – | – | – | – | Ёё | found only in Russian loanwords |
| ʒ | Жж | – | – | – | – | Жж | found only in Russian loanwords |
| z | Зз | – | – | – | – | Зз | found only in Russian loanwords |
| i | Ии,Іі | Іі | Ии | i | Ii | Ии | |
| j | – | Јј | Йй | j | Jj | Йй | |
| ȷ̃ | – | Ɉɉ | – | ɟ | – | – | |
| k | Кк | Кк | Кк | k | Kk | Кк | |
| l | Лл | Лл | Лл | l | Ll | Лл | |
| ʎ | – | Ll | – | ʎ | Lj lj | – | |
| m | Мм | Мм | Мм | m | Mm | Мм | |
| n | Нн | Нн | Нн | n | Nn | Нн | |
| ŋ | – | Ңң | Ҥҥ | ŋ | Ꞑꞑ | Ҥҥ | |
| ɲ | – | Н̕н̕ | – | ɲ | Njnj | Ньнь | |
| o | Оо | Оо | Оо | ɔ | Oo | Оо | |
| ø | – | Ӧӧ | Ёё | ꭢ | Ɵɵ | Өө | |
| p | Пп | Пп | Пп | p | Pp | Пп | |
| r | Рр | Рр | Рр | r | Rr | Рр | |
| s | Сс | Сс | Сс | s | Ss | Сс | |
| h | – | һ | – | h | Hh | Һһ | |
| t | Тт | Тт | Тт | t | Tt | Тт | |
| u | Уу | Уу | Уу | u | Uu | Уу | |
| y | – | Ӱӱ | – | y | Yy | Үү | |
| f | Фф, Ѳѳ | – | – | – | – | Фф | found only in Russian loanwords |
| x | Хх | Хх | Хх | q | Хх | ||
| ts | Цц | – | – | – | – | Цц | found only in Russian loanwords |
| tʃ | Чч | Чч | Чч | c | Cc | Чч | |
| ʃ | Шш | – | – | – | – | Шш | found only in Russian loanwords |
| ɕː | Щщ | – | – | – | – | Щщ | found only in Russian loanwords |
| ◌. | Ъъ | Ъъ | – | – | – | Ъъ | found only in Russian loanwords |
| ɯ | Ыы | Ыы | Ыы | ɯ | Ьь | Ыы | |
| ◌ʲ | Ьь | Ьь | – | – | – | Ьь | found only in digraphs (дь, нь) and Russian loanwords |
| e | Ее | Ӓӓ | Ээ | e | Ee | Ээ | |
| ju | Юю | Юю | – | – | – | Юю | found only in Russian loanwords |
| ja | Яя | Яя | – | – | – | Яя | found only in Russian loanwords |
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help){{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)| Existing systems |  | |
|---|---|---|
| Standards | ||
The Russian alphabet is the script used to write the Russian language. It comes from the Cyrillic script, which was devised in the 9th century for the first Slavic literary language, Old Slavonic. Initially an old variant of the Bulgarian alphabet, it became used in the Kievan Rusʹ since the 10th century to write what would become the modern Russian language.
Kalmyk Oirat, commonly known as the Kalmyk language, is a variety of the Oirat language, natively spoken by the Kalmyk people of Kalmykia, a federal subject of Russia. In Russia, it is the standard form of the Oirat language, which belongs to the Mongolic language family. The Kalmyk people of the Northwest Caspian Sea of Russia claim descent from the Oirats from Eurasia, who have also historically settled in Mongolia and Northwest China. According to UNESCO, the language is "Definitely endangered". According to the Russian census of 2021, there are 110,000 speakers of an ethnic population consisting of 178,000 people.
Three scripts are currently used for the Tatar language: Arabic, Cyrillic and Latin.
Yaghnobi is an Eastern Iranian language spoken in the upper valley of the Yaghnob River in the Zarafshan area of Tajikistan by the Yaghnobi people. It is considered to be a direct descendant of Sogdian and has sometimes been called Neo-Sogdian in academic literature. There are some 12,500 Yaghnobi speakers, divided into several communities. The principal group lives in the Zafarobod area. There are also resettlers in the Yaghnob Valley. Some communities live in the villages of Zumand and Kůkteppa and in Dushanbe or its vicinity.
Shor is a Turkic language spoken by about 2,800 people in a region called Mountain Shoriya, in the Kemerovo Province in Southwest Siberia, although the entire Shor population in this area is over 12000 people. Presently, not all ethnic Shors speak Shor and the language suffered a decline from the late 1930s to the early 1980s. During this period the Shor language was neither written nor taught in schools. However, since the 1980s and 1990s there has been a Shor language revival. The language is now taught at the Novokuznetsk branch of the Kemerovo State University.
Three alphabets are used to write Kazakh: the Cyrillic, Latin and Arabic scripts. The Cyrillic script is used in Kazakhstan and Mongolia. An October 2017 Presidential Decree in Kazakhstan ordered that the transition from Cyrillic to a Latin script be completed by 2031. The Arabic script is used in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan, and parts of China.
The Tajik language has been written in three alphabets over the course of its history: an adaptation of the Perso-Arabic script, an adaptation of the Latin script and an adaptation of the Cyrillic script. Any script used specifically for Tajik may be referred to as the Tajik alphabet, which is written as алифбои тоҷикӣ in Cyrillic characters, الفبای تاجیکی with Perso-Arabic script and alifboji toçikī in Latin script.
The Russian Latin alphabet is the common name for various variants of writing the Russian language by means of the Latin alphabet.
In Russian, the term spelling rule is used to describe a number of rules relating to the spelling of words in the language that would appear in most cases to deviate from a strictly phonetic transcription.
Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the 9th century AD and replaced the earlier Glagolitic script developed by the Bulgarian theologians Cyril and Methodius. It is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, past and present, Slavic origin, and non-Slavic languages influenced by Russian. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. About half of them are in Russia. Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. The creator is Saint Clement of Ohrid from the Preslav literary school in the First Bulgarian Empire.
The Bashkir alphabet is a writing system used for the Bashkir language. Until the mid-19th century, Bashkir speakers wrote in the Türki literary language using the Arabic script. In 1869, Russian linguist Mirsalikh Bekchurin published the first guide to Bashkir grammar, and the first Cyrillic Bashkir introductory book was published by Vasily Katarinsky in Orenburg in 1892. Latinisation was first discussed in June 1924, when the first draft of the Bashkir alphabet using the Latin script was created. More reforms followed, culminating in the final version in 1938.
The Dolgan language is a Turkic language with 930 speakers, spoken in the Taymyr Peninsula in Russia. The speakers are known as the Dolgans. The word "Dolgan" means 'tribe living on the middle reaches of the river'. This is most likely signifying the geographical location of the Dolgan tribe. Its closest relative is Sakha.
Latin-script German words are transcribed into Cyrillic-script languages according to rules based on pronunciation. Because German orthography is largely phonemic, transcription into Cyrillic follows relatively simple rules.
The Komi language, a Uralic language spoken in the north-eastern part of European Russia, has been written in several different alphabets. Currently, Komi writing uses letters from the Cyrillic script. There have been five distinct stages in the history of Komi writing:
Since its inception in the 18th century and up to the present, it is based on the Cyrillic alphabet to write the Udmurt language. Attempts were also made to use the Latin alphabet to write the Udmurt language. In its modern form, the Udmurt alphabet was approved in 1937.
Mordvinic alphabets is a writing system used to write Mordovian languages. From its inception in the 18th century to the present, it has been based on the Cyrillic alphabet. Until the beginning of the 20th century, the alphabet did not have a stable norm and was often changed. The modern alphabet has been in operation since the late 1920s.
Khakass alphabets are the alphabets used to write the Khakas language.
Even alphabets are the alphabets used to write the Even language. During its existence, it functioned on different graphic bases and was repeatedly reformed. At present, Even writing functions in Cyrillic. There are three stages in the history of Even writing:
Udege alphabets are the alphabets used to write the Udege language. During its existence, it functioned on different graphic bases and was repeatedly reformed. Currently, the Udege script functions on two versions of the Cyrillic alphabet for two emerging literary languages, but does not have a generally accepted norm. There are 2 stages in the history of Udege writing:
Nivkh alphabets are the alphabets used to write the Nivkh language. During its existence, it functioned on different graphic bases and was reformed several times. Currently, Nivkh writing functions in Cyrillic. There are 3 stages in the history of Nivkh writing: