Around the 10th century, Islam was introduced to the West African Sahel and became the religion of scholars and merchants in cities which traded extensively with North African traders. At the same time as Islam arrived came the Qur'an and the Arabic script, which was studied by West African scholars who learned to read, write and speak Arabic. Along with this, many students going through Koranic education would write down notes in their native languages, usually in the margins of books.[2]
It is known that some Fulani scholars were among the students studying in cities like Timbuktu and Gao, hence it is possible that Fulfulde would have been written down starting in the 16th-17th century. As Islam arrived to the Fulani lands in the 17th and 18th centuries, the Fula jihads created multiple Islamic states in West Africa which converted the population and created a class of literate scholars who would debate, speak, write and read in Fulani. The states of the Imamate of Futa Jallon from 1725 and the Sokoto Caliphate from 1804 were both epicentres of West African scholarship, with poetry, science, history, philosophy, and religion debated in Fulfulde.
This established Ajami, a modified script that was able to write Fulfulde, as the original and more traditional form of writing Fulfulde across all Fula populations.
With the arrival of Christian missionaries and soon after the invasion of European powers, mostly the French and English, came the introduction of the Latin script to Fula-speaking regions of West and Central Africa. Various missionaries, colonial administrators, and scholarly researchers devised various ways of writing Fulfulde with Latin to ease the efforts of European colonisation. There were several sounds that were unfamiliar to European languages, like the implosive b and d, the ejective y, the velar n (in the initial position), prenasalised consonants, and long vowels.
Currently, Latin alphabets are the default for Fulfulde writing, with most nations in West Africa having standardised Latin alphabets that accommodate Fulfulde and/or other languages, for official use and instruction. Various Fula writers such as Amadou Bampate Ba and Alfa Ibrahim Sow wrote and published in Latin alphabets, and is used across a range of publications from national level literacy materials, periodicals and linguistic studies and textbooks.
Major influences on current forms of writing Fula came from decisions made by colonial administrators in Northern Nigeria and the Africa Alphabet. Major UNESCO-sponsored conferences on harmonising Latin-based African orthographies were held in Bamako in 1966 and Niamey in 1978, which included standards for writing Fula. Nevertheless, orthographies differ for the language and its variants in different regions, determined by country level.
Latin Alphabets
Standard Orthography
There are variations depending on the country's policies or the dialect of Fula used. There are some general rules that were established by UNESCO from earlier conventions:
Phonemic orthography, meaning that every letter represents one phoneme/sound without silent letters
However prenasalised stops are written as two letters, like in ndiyam (water)
But nasalised vowels are not written but inferred from context
Double consonants represent geminate consonants, like in sappu (to wash) and sapu (to fold)
Double vowels represent the vowel length, like in laamɗo (person)
Alphabet Comparison
Below is a table showing the few differences between the different orthographies of Fula alphabets.
Usually represented by J in the dialects the sound appears, except for Massina which doesn't have the [jˤ] phoneme and decided to use Ƴ in here instead.
Pulaar Fuuta Tooro (Senegal, The Gambia, Mauritania)
Pulaar Fuuta Tooro is the Fula dialect spoken in Senegal, Gambia, and Southern Mauritania. Its Latin alphabet has been standardised by Senegalese government decrees, the latest of which issued in 2005.[3]
It differs from other alphabets in that it includes dipthongs and prenasalisation in the official list, while other alphabets treat it as an orthographic rule instead of a letter.
Pular Fuuta Jaloo is the Fula dialect spoken in Guinea. Following independence, the government of Guinea adopted transcription rules for all the languages of Guinea based on the characters and diacritic combinations available on French typewriters from that period. The Guinean languages alphabet was used officially for Guinean indigenous languages until 1989.
A meeting for the reform of the alphabet was established in 1988,[5] and it was decided to adopt an orthography similar to the African reference alphabet which was used elswhere in West Africa.[6][7][8] In the case of Pular, this change brought the official orthography in harmony with those used in other countries.
The pre-1989 alphabet was based on the simple Latin alphabet with digraphs for the sounds particular to Pular as opposed to unique letters. This alphabet is still used by some Pular speakers (in part because it can be typed using commercial keyboards).
In recent decades, albeit at a slower pace than Fula Latin orthography, there has been conferences, seminars, and attempts by linguists and literaturists in various countries to standardize the Arabic (Ajami) script.
Orthographic Similarities
Does not useض, ص, ز, ذ, خ, ث, ظ , these characters are only used for Arabic loanwords across all systems
Always uses diacriticsfor vowels, which is rare among non-African Arabic writing systems which usually imply vowels.
E is a vowel that most languages like Fulfulde have, except notably Arabic.
One way to tackle this was using Imaala, a phenomenon in Old Arabic where the A vowel fronted to an I. According to the Warsh Qur'anic recitation school, this approximated the E vowel and was usually denoted with a filled dot below an alif. Adamawa, Bagirmi, Futa Jallon, Nigerian and Massina used this style.
Another way was to simply invent a new diacritic. In Futa Toro, a diacritic approximating < was used.
O is another vowel that Fulfulde has in addition, except without established convention
Bagirmi and Futa Jallon simply modified the U diacritic, by adding a dot or shaping it differently
Other conventions used different sets of arrows
Long vowels are marked with characters after diacritics
Alif (ا) for aa
Ya (ي) for ee and ii
Except Nigerian and Adamawa Fulfulde Ajami which had a new character (ىٰ)
Wa (و) for oo and uu
Adamawa Ajami (Cameroon, Nigeria)
The dominant Fula accent in Cameroon (Adamawa Region) and Nigeria (Adamawa State) is referred to as Adamawa Fulfulde. the writing conventions of writing in the Arabic script for Adamawa Fulfulde were generally agreed upon and standardized by the 1990s.[15]
The characters highlighted in red are only used for Arabic loanwords, usually in the religious and scientific vocabulary.
Like Arabic and most other Ajami, the vowels are written with a diacritic marked around a character. In Adamawa, the convention was that vowels in the beginning of the word would be marked with a diacritic and the 'ayn character, which usually signified a glottal stop, and normal use of diacritics in all other contexts. It uses Imaala convention for E.
Vowel Diacritics in Adamawa Ajami.
Vowels
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
a
عَـــىَـــىَ
◌َ
عَا ىَا ىَا
◌َا
e
عٜـــىٜـــىٜ
◌ٜ
عٜىٰـــىٜىٰـــىٜىٰ
ـٜىٰ
i
عِـــىِـــىِ
◌ِ
عِيـــىِيـــىِي
ـِي
o
عٛـــىٛـــىٛ
◌ٛ
عٛو ىٛو ىٛو
ـٛو
u
عُـــىُـــىُ
◌ُ
عُو ىُو ىُو
ـُو
∅
-
◌ْ
-
Table uses alif masqura (ى) for middle/end, replacable with any character. 'Ayn (ع) always used as a vowel carrier as an initial
Like Arabic and most other Ajami, the vowels are written with a diacritic marked around a character. In the region, the convention was that vowels in the beginning of the word would be marked with a diacritic and the alif character, and normal use of diacritics in all other contexts. It uses Imaala convention for E.
Vowel diacritics in Bagirmi Ajami
Vowels
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
a
اَىــىَـــىَ
◌َ
اَ ىَا ىَا
◌َا
e
إٜىــىٜـــىٜ
◌ٜ
إٜيـــىٜيـــىٜي
ـٜي
i
إِىـــىِـــىِ
◌ِ
إِيـــىِيـــىِي
ـِي
o
أٗىـــىٗـــىٗ
◌ٗ
أٗو ىٗو ىٗو
ـٗو
u
أُىـــىُـــىُ
◌ُ
أُو ىُو ىُو
ـُو
∅
-
◌ْ
-
Table uses alif masqura (ى) as a placeholder, replacable with any character. Alif (ا) always used as a vowel carrier as an initial
Pular Fuuta Jalon (Guinea)
The dominant Fula accent in Guinea is referred to as Pular Fuuta Jalon. Its Arabic alphabet, despite popular usage and widespread teaching, has never been standardized. A single Arabic letter can correspond to multiple Latin letters and digraphs. Some authors do use small dots and markings to denote a different pronunciation. For example, in a Pular text, one may see the letter ba with three small dots 'بۛ' to indicate a [ɓ] or [p] pronunciation instead of a [b] pronunciation.[2]
The characters in red are only used for loanwords from Arabic, and green highlights denote characters unique to Ajami. Since standardisation has never happened, there was no push to keep it original to the Arabic script.
Like Arabic and most other Ajami, the vowels are written with a diacritic marked around a character. In Fuuta Jallon, the convention was that vowels in the beginning of the word would be marked with a diacritic and the 'ayn character, which usually signified a glottal stop, and normal use of diacritics in all other contexts. It uses Imaala convention for E.
Vowel diacritics in Pular
Vowels
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
a
عَـــىَـــىَ
◌َ
عَا ىَا ىَا
◌َا
e
عٜـــىٜـــىٜ
◌ٜ
عٜيـــىٜيـــىٜي
ـٜي
i
عِـــىِـــىِ
◌ِ
عِيـــىِيـــىِي
ـِي
o
عࣾـــىࣾـــىࣾ
◌ࣾ
عࣾو ىࣾو ىࣾو
ـࣾو
u
عُـــىُـــىُ
◌ُ
عُو ىُو ىُو
ـُو
∅
-
◌ْ
-
Table uses alif masqura (ى) as a placeholder, replacable with any character. 'Ayn (ع) always used as a vowel carrier as an initial
Maasina Fulfulde (Mali, Burkina Faso)
The dominant Fula accent in Mali is referred to as Maasina Fulfulde. Its Arabic alphabet was standardized in 1987, following a UNESCO conference on the topic in Bamako, the capital city of Mali.[17][16]
Characters highlighted in red are only used for loanwords which use such characters, usually in religious contexts.
Like Arabic and most other Ajami, the vowels are written with a diacritic marked around a character. In Maasina, the convention was that vowels in the beginning of the word would be marked with a diacritic and the alif character, and normal use of diacritics in all other contexts. It uses Imaala convention for E.
Vowel diacritics for Maasina Fulfulde
Vowels
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
a
اَىــىَـــىَ
◌َ
اَ ىَا ىَا
◌َا
e
اٜىــىٜـــىٜ
◌ٜ
اٜيـــىٜيـــىٜي
ـٜي
i
اِىـــىِـــىِ
◌ِ
اِيـــىِيـــىِي
ـِي
o
اࣷىـــىࣷـــىࣷ
◌ࣷ
اࣷو ىࣷو ىࣷو
ـࣷو
u
اُىـــىُـــىُ
◌ُ
اُو ىُو ىُو
ـُو
∅
-
◌ْ
-
Table uses alif masqura (ى) as a placeholder, replacable with any character. Alif (ا) always used as a vowel carrier as an initial
Nigerian Fulfulde
In Northern and Northwestern Nigeria, a dialect of Fula, referred to as Nigerian Fulfulde is spoken by Fula people. The Arabic script for this dialect has not been standardized by any governmental entity. However, this region has centuries of literary tradition. In the late 20th century and early 21st century, certain adaptations to the Arabic alphabet have come to be common in different Fula documents.[18] This includes a Fulfulde translation of the Bible as well.[19]
Characters in red are only used in loanwords from Arabic, and characters in green are characters unique to Ajami.
Like Arabic and most other Ajami, the vowels are written with a diacritic marked around a character. In Nigeria, the convention was that vowels in the beginning of the word would be marked with a diacritic and the alif character, and normal use of diacritics in all other contexts. It uses Imaala convention for E, however created a new character to replace the ya character.
Vowel diacritics in Nigeria Fulfulde
Vowels
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
a
اَىـــىَـــىَ
◌َ
اَا ىَا ىَا
◌َا
e
اٜىـــىٜـــىٜ
◌ٜ
اٜىٰـــىٜىٰـــىٜىٰ
ـٜىٰ
i
اِىـــىِـــىِ
◌ِ
اِيـــىِيـــىِي
ـِي
o
اٛىـــىٛـــىٛ
◌ٛ
اٛو ىٛو ىٛو
ـٛو
u
اُىـــىُـــىُ
◌ُ
اُو ىُو ىُو
ـُو
∅
-
◌ْ
-
Table uses alif masqura (ى) as a placeholder, replacable with any character. Alif (ا) always used as a vowel carrier as an initial
Pulaar Fuuta Tooro (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania)
The dominant Fula accent in Senegal, Gambia, and Mauritania is referred to as Pulaar Fuuta Tooro. The Arabic-based script of Pulaar was set by the government as well, between 1985 and 1990, although never adopted by a decree, as the effort by the Senegalese ministry of education was to be part of a multi-national standardization effort.[20]
Characters in red are only used in loanwords nad not native words.
Like Arabic and most other Ajami, the vowels are written with a diacritic marked around a character. In Futa Toro, the convention was that vowels in the beginning of the word would be marked with a diacritic and the alif character, and normal use of diacritics in all other contexts. It does not use Imala convention for E, instead creating a new diacritic.
Vowel diacritics in Pulaar
Vowels
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
End
Middle
Initial
Isolated
a
اَىــىَـــىَ
◌َ
اَ ىَا ىَا
◌َا
e
اࣹىــىࣹـــىࣹ
◌ࣹ
اࣹيـــىࣹيـــىࣹي
ـࣹي
i
اِىـــىِـــىِ
◌ِ
اِيـــىِيـــىِي
ـِي
o
اࣷىـــىࣷـــىࣷ
◌ࣷ
اࣷو ىࣷو ىࣷو
ـࣷو
u
اُىـــىُـــىُ
◌ُ
اُو ىُو ىُو
ـُو
∅
-
◌ْ
-
Table uses alif masqura (ى) as a placeholder, replacable with any character. Alif (ا) always used as a vowel carrier as an initial
Several alphabets have been devised to write Fulfulde in the sixties, in Mali, in Senegal, in Nigeria, and in Guinea. During the late 1980s an alphabetic script was devised by the teenaged brothers Ibrahima and Abdoulaye Barry, in order to represent the Fulani language.[21][22] After several years of development it started to be widely adopted among Fulani communities, and is currently taught in Guinea, Nigeria, Liberia and other nearby countries. The name adlam is an acronym derived from the first four letters of the alphabet (A, D, L, M), standing for Alkule Dandayɗe Leñol Mulugol ("the alphabet that protects the peoples from vanishing"). There are Android apps to send SMS in adlam and to learn the alphabet.[23] On computers running Microsoft Windows, the adlam script is natively supported as part of the upcoming feature update of Windows 10 version 1903 (codenamed 19H1) build 18252.[24]
Example
An example of all the different writing systems using the first line of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, using the closest dialect translation.
Latin
Ajami
Adlam
Adamawa
Fulfulde
E tuugnaadeko wonde keftingal horma kala neɗɗo e nder ɓesngu aadee e hakkeeji potɗi woni dnaɗɗuudi ndimaague potal e jam e nder aduna
The extended Latin characters used in the Latin transcription of Fula were incorporated since an early version of the Unicode Standard. At least some of the extended Arabic characters used in Ajami are also in the Unicode standard. The Adlam alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2016 with the release of version 9.0.[22]
Other scripts
There has been at least one effort to adapt the N'Ko alphabet to the Pular language of Guinea. In the late 1960s, David Dalby recorded two additional scripts- the Dita script created by Oumar Dembélé (or Dambele) of Bamako, and another script created by Adama Ba. Dita was influenced by the traditional iconography of various Malian communities, while Ba's system is a cursive script which Dalby compares to the handwritten Latin alphabet. Both scripts were alphabetic in nature, and in the face of disapproval from officials who favored the promotion of Latin-script literacy, neither had seen widespread adoption as of 1969.[25]
References
↑ Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. Columbia University Press.
↑ Gouvernement du Sénégal, Décret N° 2005-990 du 21 octobre 2005.
↑ République du Sénégal, Décret no 2005-988 relatif à l’orthographe et la séparation des mots en pulaar, 21 octobre 2005
1 2 Sâa Gilbert Ifono. (2015) Le nouvel alphabet des langues guinéennes
↑ Diallo, Alpha Mamadou, Usages et images des langues en guinée, Université de Conakry.
↑ Diallo, Amadou; Étude sur le rôle de l'éducation non formelle dans la stratégie de réduction de la pauvreté (SRP) en Guinée, Ministère du Plan de la République de Guinée/ GTZ, Conakry 3/2006. Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine
↑ Buddell, S. Hanold, M. Sankare, N, Souster, J. (2010, July) Lisons le fulfulde - Guide pour apprendre à lire en langue peule. Société Internationale de Linguistique (SIL). Bamoko, Mali. Link (Archive)
↑ Scriptsouce Writing System. Contributor: Lorna Evans Adamawa Fulfulde written with Latin script: fub-Latn
↑ Scriptsouce Writing System. Contributor: Lorna Priest Central-Eastern Niger Fulfulde written with Latin script: fuq-Latn
1 2 Warren-Rothlin, Andy. 2012. Arabic script in modern Nigeria . In Roger M. Blench and Stuart McGill (eds.), Advances in minority language research in Nigeria, Vol. I. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 105-121. Rüdiger Köppe. (PDF Access)
↑ Dalby, David (1969). "Further Indigenous Scripts of West Africa: Manding, Wolof and Fula Alphabets and Yoruba 'Holy' Writing". African Language Studies. X. University of London. School of Oriental and African Studies: 161–181.
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