Kohistani Shina

Last updated
Kohistani Shina
Kohistani, Kohistyo, Palasi-Kohistani
ݜݨیاٗ کستِین٘و زبان / ݜݨیاٗ زبان
Native to Pakistan
Region Kohistan District, Pakistan
Native speakers
458,000 (2018) [1]
Indo-European
Dialects
Perso-Arabic script (Nastaliq)
Language codes
ISO 639-3 plk
Glottolog kohi1248

Kohistani Shina is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the former Kohistan District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northern Pakistan. According to Ethnologue , Kohistani Shina is mutually intelligible with the Shina variety of Chilas, but not with the standard dialect of Gilgit. [1] Bateri and Kalkoti speakers speak Kohistani Shina as a second language. [3] Indus Kohistani loanwords can be found in the language.[ citation needed ] A grammar and a dictionary of the language have been published. [4] [5] [6]

Contents

Alphabet

Shina is one of the few Dardic languages with a written tradition. [7] However, it was an unwritten language until a few decades ago. [8] Only in late 2010s has Shina orthography been standardized and primers as well as dictionaries have been published. [9] [5]

Since the first attempts at accurately representing Shina's phonology in the 1960s there have been several proposed orthographies for the different varieties of the language, with debates centering on how to write several retroflex sound not present in Urdu and whether vowel length and tone should be represented. [10]

There are two main orthographic conventions now, one in Pakistani-controlled areas of Gilgit-Baltistan and in Kohistan, and the other in Indian-controlled area of Dras, Ladakh.

Below alphabet has been standardized, documented, and popularized thanks to efforts of literaturists such as Professor Muhammad Amin Ziya, Shakeel Ahmad Shakeel, and Razwal Kohistani, and it has been developed for all Shina language dialects, including Gilgit dialect and Kohistani dialect, which [9] [5] [11] The Kohistani Shina alphabet differs slightly from the Gilgiti variety. For example, it includes one additional letter ڦ, and it includes several additional digraphs to represent additional aspirated consonants unique to Kohistani. Furthermore, variations and personal preferences can be observed across Shina documents. For example, it is common to see someone use سً instead of ݜ for [ ʂ ], or use sukun◌ْ (U+0652) instead of small sideway noon◌ࣿ (U+08FF) to indicate short vowels. However, these variations are no longer an issue. Another issue is that of how to write loanwords that use letters not found in Shina language, for example letters "س / ث / ص", which all sound like [s] in Shina. Some documents preserve the original spelling, despite the letters being homophones and not having any independent sound of their own, similar to orthographic conventions of Persian and Urdu. Whereas other documents prefer to rewrite all loanwords in a single Shina letter, and thus simplify the writing, similar to orthographic conventions of Kurdish and Uyghur.

Shina vowels are distinguished by length, by whether or not they're nasalized, and by tone. Nasalization is represented like other Perso-Arabic alphabets in Pakistan, with Nun Ghunna (ن٘ـ / ـن٘ـ / ں). In Shina, tone variation only occur when there is a long vowel. There are conventions unique to Shina to show the three tones. In Shina conventions, specific diacritics are shown in conjunction with the letters aliv, waaw, buṛi ye, and ye (ا، و، یـ، ی، ے), as these letters are written down to represent long vowels. The diacritics inverted damma◌ٗ (U+0657) and superscript alef◌ٰ (U+0670) represent a rising tone and a falling tone respectively. Another diacritic, a small sideway noon◌ࣿ (U+08FF) is used to represent short vowels when need be. [12]

Consonants

Below table shows Shina consonants. [9] [5]

NameForms IPA Transliteration [13] Unicode Notes
ShinaIsolatedFinalMedialInitial
الڦ
aliv
ا ـاـاا / آ[ ʌ ], [ ], silent– / aa U+0627
U+0627
At the beginning of a word it can either come with diacritic, or it can come in form of aliv-madda (آ), or it can be stand-alone and silent, succeeded by a vowel letter. Diacritics اَ اِ، اُ can be omitted in writing.
بےࣿ
be
ب ـبـبـبـ[ b ]b U+0628
پےࣿ
pe
پ ـپـپـپـ[ p ]p U+067E
تےࣿ
te
ت ـتـتـتـ[ ]t U+062A
ٹےࣿ
te
ٹ ـٹـٹـٹـ[ ʈ ] U+0679
ثےࣿ
se
ث ـثـثـثـ[ s ]s U+062B Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with letter siinس. [9]
جوࣿم
ǰom
ج ـجـجـجـ[ d͡ʒ ]ǰ U+062C
چےࣿ
če
چ ـچـچـچـ[ t͡ʃ ]č U+0686
څےࣿ
tse
څ ـڅـڅـڅـ[ t͡s ]ts U+0685 Letter borrowed from Pashto alphabet.
ڇےࣿ
c̣e
ڇ ـڇـڇـڇـ[ ʈ͡ʂ ] U+0687 Unique letter for Shina language. Some Shina literatures and documents use two horizontal lines instead of four dots, use حٍـ instead of ڇـ.
حےࣿ
he
ح ـحـحـحـ[ h ]h U+062D Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with letter hayہ. [9]
خےࣿ
khe
خ ـخـخـخـ[ x ]~[ ]kh U+062E Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with digraph letter kheکھ. [9]
دال
daal
د ـد--[ ]d U+062F
ڈال
ḍaal
ڈ ـڈ--[ ɖ ] U+0688
ذال
zaal
ذ ـذ--[ z ]z U+0630 Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with letter zeز. [9]
رےࣿ
re
ر ـر--[ r ]r U+0631
ڑےࣿ
ṛe
ڑ ـڑ--[ ɽ ] U+0691
زےࣿ
ze
ز ـز--[ z ]z U+0632
ژےࣿ
že / ǰe
ژ ـژ--[ ʒ ]‍~[ d͡ʒ ]ž / ǰ U+0632 Only used in loanwords of Persian and European origin. Can be replaced with letter jomج. [9]
ڙےࣿ
ẓe
ڙ ـڙ--[ ʐ ] U+0699 Unique letter for Shina language. Some Shina literatures and documents use two horizontal lines instead of four dots, use رً instead of ڙ.
سِین
siin
س ـسـسـسـ[ s ]s U+0633
شِین
šiin
ش ـشـشـشـ[ ʃ ]š U+0634
ݜِین
ṣiin
ݜ ـݜـݜـݜـ[ ʂ ] U+0687 Unique letter for Shina language. Some Shina literatures and documents use two horizontal lines instead of four dots, use سً instead of ݜ.
صواد
swaad
ص ـصـصـصـ[ s ]s U+0635 Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with letter siinس. [9]
ضواد
zwaad
ض ـضـضـضـ[ z ]z U+0636 Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with letter zeز. [9]
طوے
tooy
ط ـطـطـطـ[ ]t U+0637 Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with letter teت. [9]
ظوے
zooy
ظ ـظـظـظـ[ z ]z U+0638 Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with letter zeز. [9]
عَین
ayn
ع ـعـعـعـ[ ʔ ], silent- U+0639 Only used in loanwords of Arabic origin. Can be replaced with letter alivا. [9]
غَین
gayn
غ ـغـغـغـ[ ɣ ]~[ ɡ ]g U+063A Only used in loanwords of Arabic and Turkic origin. Can be replaced with letter gaafگ. [9]
فےࣿ
fe / phe
ف ـفـفـفـ[ f ]~[ ]f / ph U+0641 Only used in loanwords. Can be replaced with digraph letter pheپھ. [9]
ڦےࣿ
ve
ڦ ـڦـڦـڦـ[ ʂ ]v U+06A6 Unique letter for Shina language. Some Shina literatures and documents use two horizontal lines instead of four dots, use ڡً instead of ڦ.
قاف
qaaf / kaaf
ق ـقـقـقـ[ q ]~[ k ]q / k U+0642 Only used in loanwords of Arabic and Turkic origin. Can be replaced with letter kaafک. [9]
کاف
kaaf
ک ـکـکـکـ[ k ]k U+0643
گاف
gaaf
گ ـگـگـگـ[ ɡ ]g U+06AF
ڱاف / گاف گُنَہ
ngaaf / gaaf gunna
ڱـڱـڱـڱـ/ŋ/ng U+06B1 Unique letter for Kohistani Shina language. [5]
لام
laam
ل ـلـلـلـ[ l ]l U+0644
مِیم
miim
م ـمـمـمـ[ m ]m U+0645
نُون
nuun
ن ـنـنـنـ[ n ]n U+0646
نُوݨ
nuuṇ
ݨ ـݨـݨـݨـ[ ɳ ] U+0768
نُوں / نُون گُنَہ
nū̃ / nūn gunna
ں / ن٘ ـںـن٘ـن٘ـ/◌̃/◌̃For middle of word:
U+0646
plus
U+0658
For end of word:
U+06BA
واؤ
waaw
و / اوـو--[ ] / [ w ]w / ō U+0648 The letter waaw can either represent consonant ([w/v]) or vowel ([oo]). It can also act as a carrier of vowel diacritics, representing several other vowels. At the beginning of a word, when representing a consonant, the letter waaw will appear as a standalone character, followed by the appropriate vowel. If representing a vowel at the beginning of a word, the letter waaw needs to be preceded by an alivا. When the letter waaw comes at the end of the word representing a consonant sound [w], a hamza is used ؤ to label it as such and avoid mispronunciation as a vowel. [12]
ہَے
hai
ہ ـہـہـہـ[ h ]h U+0646 This letter differs from do-ac̣hi'ii hay (ھ) and they are not interchangeable. Similar to Urdu,do-chashmi hē (ھ) is exclusively used as a second part of digraphs for representing aspirated consonants. In initial and medial position, the letter always represents the consonant [h]. In final position, The letter can either represent consonant ([h]) or it can demonstrate that the word ends with short vowels a◌َہ / ـَہ, i◌ِہ / ـِہ, u◌ُہ / ـُہ. [12]
ہَمزَہ
hamza
ء ---[ ʔ ], silent U+0621 Used mid-word to indicate separation between a syllable and another that starts with a vowel. hamza on top of letters waaw and ye at end of a word serves a function too. When the letter waaw or ye come at the end of the word representing a consonant sound [w] or [y], a hamza is used ؤ / ئ / ـئ to label it as such and avoid mispronunciation as a vowel. [9] [12]
یےࣿ / لیکھی یےࣿ
ye / leekhii ye
ی ـیـیـیـ[ j ] / [ e ] / [ i ]y / e / i U+06CC The letter ye can either represent consonant ([j]) or vowels ([e]/[i]). It can also act as a carrier of vowel diacritics, representing several other vowels. At the beginning of a word, when representing a consonant, the letter ye will appear as a standalone character, followed by the appropriate vowel. If representing a vowel at the beginning of a word, the letter ye needs to be preceded by an alivا. When the letter ye comes at the end of the word representing a consonant sound [j], a hamza is used ئ to label it as such and avoid mispronunciation as a vowel. When representing a vowel at the end of a word, it can only be [i]. For vowel [e], the letter buṛi yeے is used.

[12]

بُڑیࣿ یےࣿ
buṛi ye
ے ـے--[ e ] / [ j ]e / y U+06D2 The letter buṛi ye only occurs in final position. The letter buṛi ye represents the vowel "ē" [eː] or the consonant "y" [j].
بھےࣿ
bhe
بھـبھـبھـبھـ[ ]bh U+0628
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
پھےࣿ
phe
پھـپھـپھـپھـ[ ]ph U+067E
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
تھےࣿ
the
تھـتھـتھـتھـ[ t̪ʰ ]th U+062A
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
ٹھےࣿ
ṭhe
ٹھـٹھـٹھـٹھـ[ ʈʰ ]ṭh U+0679
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
جھوࣿم
ǰhom
جھـجھـجھـجھـ[ d͡ʒʱ ]ǰh U+062C
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
چھےࣿ
čhe
چھـچھـچھـچھـ[ t͡ʃʰ ]čh U+0686
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
څھےࣿ
tshe
څھـڅھـڅھـڅھـ[ t͡sʰ ]tsh U+0685
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
ڇھےࣿ
c̣he
ڇھـڇھـڇھـڇھـ[ ʈ͡ʂʰ ]c̣h U+0687
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
دھےࣿ
dhe
دھـدھـدھـدھـ[ d̪ʱ ]dh U+062F
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
ڈھےࣿ
ḍhe
ڈھـڈھـڈھـڈھـ[ ɖʱ ]ḍh U+0688
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
رھےࣿ
rhe
رھـرھـرھـرھـ[ ]rh U+0631
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
زھےࣿ
zhe
زھـزھـزھـزھـ[ ]zh U+0632
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
ڙھےࣿ
ẓhe
ڙھـڙھـڙھـڙھـ[ ]ẓh U+0699
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
کھےࣿ
khe
کھـکھـکھـکھـ[ ]kh U+0643
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
گھےࣿ
ghe
گھـگھـگھـگھـ[ ɡʱ ]gh U+06AF
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
لھےࣿ
lhe
لھـلھـلھـلھـ[ ]lh U+0644
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
مھےࣿ
mhe
مھـمھـمھـمھـ[ ]mh U+0645
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]
نھےࣿ
nhe
نھـنھـنھـنھـ[ ]nh U+0646
and
U+06BE
A digraph, counted as a letter. [5]

Vowels

There are five vowels in Kohistani Shina language. Each of the five vowels in Kohistani Shina have a short version and a long version. Shina is also a tonal language. Short vowels in Shina have a short high level tone ˥. Long vowels can either have "no tone", i.e. a long flat tone ˧, a long rising tone [ ˨˦ ], or a long falling tone (/˥˩/.

All five vowels have a defined way of presentation in Kohistani Shina orthographic conventions, including letters and diacritics. Although diacritics can and are occasionally dropped in writing. Short vowels [a], [i], and [u] are solely written with diacritics. Short vowels [e] and [o] are written with letters waw and buṛi ye. A unique diacritic, a small sideway noon◌ࣿ (U+08FF) is used on top of these letters to indicate a short vowel. [12] Long vowels are written with a combination of diacritics and letters aliv, waaw or ye.

Below table shows short vowels at the beginning, middle, and end of a word. [12] [13]

Vowel at the beginning of the word
aeiou
اَایࣿـ / اےࣿاِاوࣿاُ
Vowel at the middle of the word
ـَیࣿـ / ـیࣿـ ـِوࣿ / ـوࣿـُ
Vowel at the end of the word
◌َہ / ـَہےࣿ / ـےࣿ ◌ِہ / ـِہوࣿ / ـوࣿ◌ُہ / ـُہ

Below table shows long vowels at the beginning, middle, and end of a word, with "no tone", i.e. a long flat tone ˧. [12] [13]

Vowel at the beginning of the word
aaeeiioouu
آایـ / اےاِیـ / اِیاواُو
Vowel at the middle of the word
ا / ـایـ / ـیـ ◌ِیـ / ـِیـو / ـو◌ُو / ـُو
Vowel at the end of the word
ا / ـاے / ـے◌ِی / ـِیو / ـو◌ُو / ـُو

Below table shows long vowels at the beginning, middle, and end of a word, with a long rising tone [ ˨˦ ]. [12] [13]

Vowel at the beginning of the word
آٗایٗـ / اےٗاِیٗـ / اِیٗاوٗاُوٗ
Vowel at the middle of the word
اٗ / ـاٗیٗـ / ـیٗـ ◌ِیٗـ / ـِیٗـوٗ / ـوٗ◌ُوٗ / ـُوٗ
Vowel at the end of the word
اٗ / ـاٗےٗ / ـےٗ◌ِیٗ / ـِیوٗ / ـوٗ◌ُوٗ / ـُوٗ

Below table shows long vowels at the beginning, middle, and end of a word, with a long falling tone (/˥˩/. [12] [13]

Vowel at the beginning of the word
áaéeíióoúu
آٰایٰـ / اےٰاِیٰـ / اِیٰاوٰاُوٰ
Vowel at the middle of the word
اٰ / ـاٰیٰـ / ـیٰـ ◌ِیٰـ / ـِیٰـوٰ / ـوٰ◌ُوٰ / ـُوٰ
Vowel at the end of the word
اٰ / ـاٰےٰ / ـےٰ◌ِیٰ / ـِیٰوٰ / ـوٰ◌ُوٰ / ـُوٰ

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arabic alphabet</span>

The Arabic alphabet, or Arabic abjad, is the Arabic script as specifically codified for writing the Arabic language. It is written from right-to-left in a cursive style, and includes 28 letters, of which most have contextual letterforms. The Arabic alphabet is considered an abjad, with only consonants required to be written; due to its optional use of diacritics to notate vowels, it is considered an impure abjad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brahui language</span> Dravidian language spoken in southwestern Pakistan and Afghanistan

Brahui is a Dravidian language spoken by the Brahui people who are mainly found in the central Balochistan Province of Pakistan, with smaller communities of speakers scattered in parts of Iranian Baluchestan, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan and by expatriate Brahui communities in Iraq, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. It is isolated from the nearest Dravidian-speaking neighbouring population of South India by a distance of more than 1,500 kilometres (930 mi). The Kalat, Khuzdar, Mastung, Quetta, Bolan, Nasirabad, Nushki, and Kharan districts of Balochistan Province are predominantly Brahui-speaking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diacritic</span> Modifier mark added to a letter

A diacritic is a glyph added to a letter or to a basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek διακριτικός, from διακρίνω. The word diacritic is a noun, though it is sometimes used in an attributive sense, whereas diacritical is only an adjective. Some diacritics, such as the acute ⟨á⟩, grave ⟨à⟩, and circumflex ⟨â⟩, are often called accents. Diacritics may appear above or below a letter or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters.

The double acute accent is a diacritic mark of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. It is used primarily in Hungarian or Chuvash, and consequently it is sometimes referred to by typographers as hungarumlaut. The signs formed with a regular umlaut are letters in their own right in the Hungarian alphabet—for instance, they are separate letters for the purpose of collation. Letters with the double acute, however, are considered variants of their equivalents with the umlaut, being thought of as having both an umlaut and an acute accent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Balti language</span> Tibetic language of Baltistan, Pakistan

Balti is a Tibetic language natively spoken by the ethnic Balti people in the Baltistan region of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan, Nubra Valley of the Leh district and in the Kargil district of Ladakh, India. The language differs from Standard Tibetan; many sounds of Old Tibetan that were lost in Standard Tibetan are retained in the Balti language. It also has a simple pitch accent system only in multi-syllabic words while Standard Tibetan has a complex and distinct pitch system that includes tone contour. Due to effects of dominant languages in Pakistani media like Urdu, Punjabi and English and religious impact of Arabic and Persian languages, Balti, like other regional languages of Pakistan, is continuously expanding its vocabulary base with loanwords.

The Azerbaijani alphabet has three versions which includes the Arabic, Latin, and Cyrillic alphabets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wakhi language</span> Eastern Iranian language spoken by the Wakhi people

Wakhi is an Indo-European language in the Eastern Iranian branch of the language family spoken today in Wakhan District, Northern Afghanistan and also in Tajikistan, Northern Pakistan and Western China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Munji language</span> Iranian language spoken in Afghanistan

The Munji language, also known as Munjani, Munjhan (مونجهان), and the Munjiwar language, is a Pamir language spoken in the Munjan valley in the Kuran wa Munjan district of the Badakhshan province in northeast Afghanistan. It is similar to the Yidgha language, which is spoken in the Upper Lotkoh Valley of Chitral, west of Garam Chashma in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shina language</span> Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken in Gilgit-Baltistan and Gurez valley

Shina is a Dardic language of Indo-Aryan language family spoken by the Shina people. In Pakistan, Shina is the major language in Gilgit-Baltistan spoken by an estimated 1,146,000 people living mainly in Gilgit-Baltistan and Kohistan. A small community of Shina speakers is also found in India, in the Guraiz valley of Jammu and Kashmir and in Dras valley of Ladakh. Outliers of Shina language such as Brokskat are found in Ladakh, Kundal Shahi in Azad Kashmir, Palula and Sawi in Chitral, Ushojo in the Swat Valley and Kalkoti in Dir.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Torwali language</span> Indo-Aryan language spoken in Pakistan

Torwali is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Torwali people, and concentrated in the Bahrain and Chail areas of the Swat District in Pakistan. The Torwali language is said to have originated from the pre-Muslim communities of Swat. It is the closest modern Indo-Aryan language still spoken today to Niya, a dialect of Gāndhārī, a Middle Indo-Aryan language spoken in the ancient region of Gandhara.

Gawri (ګاوری), also known as Kalami (کالامي), or Bashkarik, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Swat Kohistan region in the upper Swat District and in the upper Panjkora river valley of Upper Dir District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urdu alphabet</span> Writing system used for Urdu

The Urdu alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for writing Urdu. It is a modification of the Persian alphabet, which itself is derived from the Arabic script. It has official status in the republics of Pakistan, India and South Africa. The Urdu alphabet has up to 39 or 40 distinct letters with no distinct letter cases and is typically written in the calligraphic Nastaʿlīq script, whereas Arabic is more commonly written in the Naskh style.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indus Kohistani</span> Indo-Aryan language spoken in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Indus Kohistani or simply Kohistani is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the former Kohistan District of Pakistan. The language was referred to as Maiyã (Mayon) or Shuthun by early researchers, but subsequent observations have not verified that these names are known locally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shina people</span> Ethnolinguistic group in South Asia

The Shina or Gilgitis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group primarily residing in Gilgit–Baltistan and Indus Kohistan in Pakistan, as well as in the Dras Valley and Kishenganga Valley (Gurez) in the northern region of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh in India. They speak an Indo-Aryan language, called Shina and their geographic area of predominance is referred to as Shenaki.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pashto alphabet</span> Writing system used for the Pashto language

The Pashto alphabet is the right-to-left abjad-based alphabet developed from the Arabic script, used for the Pashto language in Pakistan and Afghanistan. It originated in the 16th century through the works of Pir Roshan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khowar alphabet</span> Alphabets for Khowar Language

The Khowar alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for the Khowar language. It is a modification of the Urdu alphabet, which is itself a derivative of the Persian alphabet and Arabic alphabet and uses the calligraphic Nastaʿlīq script.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalkoti language</span> Indo-Aryan language of Pakistan

Kalkoti, also known as Goedijaa, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Kalkot Tehsil, in the Upper Dir district in Pakistan.

Swahili Ajami script refers to the alphabet derived from Arabic script that is used for the writing of Swahili language.

The Rohingya Arabic Alphabet is a modified Arabic script for the Rohingya language. Rohingya today is written in three scripts, Hanifi Rohingya script, Arabic Alphabet, and Latin (Rohingyalish). Rohingya was first written in the 19th century with a version of the Perso-Arabic script. In 1975, an orthographic Arabic script was developed and approved by the community leaders, based on the Urdu alphabet but with unique innovations to make the script suitable to Rohingya.

References

  1. 1 2 "Shina,jalkutia Kohistani".
  2. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10). "Glottolog 4.8 - Kohistanic Shina". Glottolog . Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.7398962 . Archived from the original on 2023-11-06. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
  3. Liljegren, Henrik (2013). "Notes on Kalkoti: A Shina Language with Strong Kohistani Influences". Linguistic Discovery. 11. doi: 10.1349/PS1.1537-0852.A.423 .
  4. Schmidt, Ruth Laila; Kohistani, Razval; Zarin, Mohammad Manzar (2008). A Grammar of the Shina Language of Indus Kohistan. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 264. ISBN   9783447056762.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Kohistani, Razval (2020-09-21). Complete Shina Kohistani Qaida By Razwal Kohistani (in Urdu).
  6. "Kohistani Shina-Urdu dictionary published". 22 October 2021.
  7. Bashir 2003, p. 823. "Of the languages discussed here, Shina (Pakistan) and Khowar have developed a written tradition and a significant body of written material exists."
  8. Schmidt & 2003/2004, p. 61.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Ziya, Muhammad Amin, Prof. (2010, October). Gilti Shina Urdu Dictionary / ݜِناٗ - اُردو لغت. Publisher: Zia Publications, Gilgit. ضیاء پبلیکبشنز، گلیٗتISBN 978-969-942-00-8 https://archive.org/details/MuhammadAmeenZiaGiltiShinaUrduDictionary/page/n5/mode/1up
  10. Bashir 2016, p. 806.
  11. Pamir Times (September 5, 2008), "Shina language gets a major boost with Shakeel Ahmad Shakeel’s efforts" https://pamirtimes.net/2008/09/05/shina-language-gets-a-major-boost-with-shakeel-ahmad-shakeels-efforts/
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Shakeel Ahmad Shakeel. (2008). Sheena language An overview of the teaching and learning system / شینا زبان نظام پڑھائی لکھائی کا جائزہ. https://z-lib.io/book/14214726
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Radloff, Carla F. with Shakil Ahmad Shakil.1998. Folktales in the Shina of Gilgit. Islamabad: The National Institute of Pakistan Studies and Summer Institute of Linguistics.

Sources