List of wars involving Nigeria

Last updated

This is a list of wars involving the Federal Republic of Nigeria and its predecessor states.

Contents

Other conflicts

Kingdom of Benin (1180–1897)

ConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result
Idah war (1515-1516)
part of the European exploration of Africa

Unidentified West African flag.svg Kingdom of Benin
Flag Portugal (1495).svg Portuguese Empire

Igala Kingdom
Unidentified West African flag.svg Traitor from Benin

Benin-Portuguese victory

Oyo Empire (1682–1833)

ConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result
Battle of Dahomey
(1728)
Oyo Empire Dahomey Victory
Battle of Atakpamé

Ashanti Empire

Victory
  • Severe defeat on the Ashanti
Battle of Tabkin Kwatto
part of the Fulani War
(1804)

Gobir
Kel Gress Tuaregs
Sullubawa Fulanis

Sokoto Caliphate
Agali and Adar Tuaregs

Decisive Sokoto victory
Fulani War
part of the Fula jihads
(1804–1808)

Flag of the Sokoto Caliphate.svg Sokoto Caliphate
Support:
Sultanate of Aïr

Sokoto victory
Battle of Oyo Ile Oyo Empire NupeDecisive Oyo victory
  • The Oyo defeated the Nupe and reclaimed Oyo Ile

Battles (1901–1902)

Colonial Nigeria (1800–1960)

ConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result
Igbo-Igala Wars
(18th-19th century)

Nsukka
Anioma
Aguleri

Igala Kingdom

Stalemate
Ekumeku Movement
(1883–1914)

Ekumeku organisation

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire

British victory
  • Establishment of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate
Anglo-Aro War
part of the Scramble for Africa
(1901–1902)

Flag of the Aro Confederacy.svg Aro Confederacy

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  Britain

British victory
Battle of Kano
part of the Pacification of Northern Nigeria
(1903)

Flag of the Sokoto Caliphate.svg Sokoto Caliphate

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire

British victory
African theatre of World War I
part of the First World War
(1914–1918)

Entente Powers :

Flag of Italy (1861-1946) crowned.svg  Italy (1915–1918)

Flag of Liberia.svg Liberia (1917–1918)

Central Powers :

Allied victory

Kamerun campaign
part of the African theatre of World War I
(1914–1916)

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire

Flag of France (1794-1958).svg  France

Flag of Belgium (civil).svg Belgium

Flag of the German Empire.svg  Germany

Allied victory
First Battle of Garua
part of the Kamerun campaign in World War I
(1914)

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire

Flag of the German Empire.svg Germany

German victory
Battle of Gurin
part of the Kamerun campaign in World War I
(1915)

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire

Flag of the German Empire.svg  Germany

British victory
Second Battle of Garua
part of the Kamerun campaign in World War I
(1915)

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire

Flag of France (1794-1958).svg  France

Flag of the German Empire.svg German Empire

Allied victory
Bussa Rebellion
part of World War I
(1915)

Supporters of the Emir of Bussa

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire

British victory
Adubi War

(1918)

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Empire

Egba rebels

British victory
East African Campaign (World War II)
part of the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of the Second World War
(1940–1943)
Flag of Ethiopia (1897-1936; 1941-1974).svg Ethiopian Arbegnoch
Flag of Belgium.svg  Belgium

Flag of Free France (1940-1944).svg Free France

Flag of Italy (1861-1946) crowned.svg  Italy

Allied victory

First Nigerian Republic (1960–1979)

ConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result
Congo Crisis
part of thethe decolonisation of Africa and the Cold War
(1960–1964)
1960–1963:
Supported by:
1963–1964:Supported by:
1960–1963:Supported by:
1960–1962:Supported by:
1963–1964:
Supported by:
Victory
  • The Congo established as an independent unitary state under the authoritarian presidency of Mobutu Sese Seko.
1966 Nigerian coup d'état
(1966)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Government of Nigeria

Flag of Nigeria.svg Rebel Army Officers

Coup failed but government was still overthrown
1975 Nigerian coup d'état

(1975)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Military government

Flag of the Nigerian Armed Forces.svg Armed Forces faction

Coup succeeds
1976 Nigerian coup d'état attempt

(1976)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Military government

Flag of the Nigerian Armed Forces.svg Armed Forces faction

Coup fails

Civil War (1967–1970)

ConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result
Nigerian Civil War
part of the Cold War and the decolonisation of Africa
(1967–1970)
Nigerian victory
Operation UNICORD
part of the Biafran War
(1967)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Nigerian victory
Midwest Invasion of 1967
part of the Biafran War
(1967)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Nigerian victory
First Invasion of Onitsha
part of the Biafran War
(1967)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Biafran victory
Operation Tiger Claw
part of the Nigerian Civil War
(1967)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Nigerian victory
Fall of Enugu
part of the Nigerian Civil War
(1967)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Nigerian victory
Second Invasion of Onitsha
part of the Biafran War
(1968)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Nigerian victory
Abagana Ambush
part of the Nigerian Civil War
(1968)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Decisive Biafran victory
Invasion of Port Harcourt
part of the Biafran War
(1968)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Victory
Operation OAU
part of the Biafran War
(1968)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Biafran victory
Operation Hiroshima
part of the Biafran War
(1968)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Decisive Nigerian victory
Siege of Owerri
part of the Nigerian Civil War
(1968–1969)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Biafran victory
Operation Leopard (1969)
part of the Biafran War

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Victory
Invasion of Umuahia
part of the Biafran War
(1969)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Victory
Operation Tail-Wind
part of the Biafran War
(1970)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafra

Decisive Nigerian victory
  • Capitulation of Biafra

Second Nigerian Republic (1977–1991)

ConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result
Shaba I
part of the Shaba Invasions and the Cold War
(1977)

Supported by:

FLNC Congo.svg Congolese National Liberation Front (FNLC) Supported by:

Zairian victory
  • FNLC expelled from Shaba
Chadian–Libyan conflict
part of the Cold War and the Arab Cold War
(1978-1987)

Flag of Chad.svg Anti-Libyan Chadian factions

  • FAT (1978–1979)
  • FAN (1978–1983)
  • FANT (1983–1987)
  • GUNT (1986–1987)

Flag of France (lighter variant).svg France
Inter-African Force

Flag of the National Front for the Salvation of Libya.svg NFSL

Supported by:

Flag of Libya (1977-2011).svg Libya

Flag of Chad.svg Pro-Libyan Chadian factions

Pro-Libyan Palestinian and Lebanese groups [25]

Chadian and French victory
1983 Nigerian coup d'état

(1983)

Flag of Nigeria (state).svg Democratically elected Federal Government of Nigeria

Flag of the Nigerian Armed Forces.svg Armed Forces faction

Coup succeeds
Chadian–Nigerian War

(1983)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Chad.svg Chad

Nigerian victory
1985 Nigerian coup d'état

(1985)

Flag of Nigeria (state).svg Military government

Flag of the Nigerian Armed Forces.svg Armed Forces faction

Coup succeeds
First Liberian Civil War
part of the Liberian Civil Wars and spillover of the Sierra Leone Civil War
(1990–1997)

Flag of Liberia.svg Liberian government


Flag of Liberia.svg ULIMO (1991–1994)

Flag of Liberia.svg LPC (1993–1996)
Flag of Liberia.svg LUDF (later becoming ULIMO)
Flag of Liberia.svg LDF (1993–1996)
Supported by:
ECOMOG

Flag of the United Nations.svg UNOMIL (1993–1997)

Anti-Doe Armed Forces elements
Flag of Liberia.svg NPFL
Flag of Liberia.svg INPFL (1989–1992)
Flag of Liberia.svg NPFL-CRC (1994–1996)
Supported by:
Flag of Libya (1977-2011).svg  Libya
Flag of Burkina Faso.svg Burkina Faso
Flag of the Revolutionary United Front.png RUF

NPFL victory

Third Nigerian Republic (1992–1999)

ConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result

Unified Task Force
part of the Somali Civil War
(1992–1993)

Somali National Alliance
Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya

Operational success
Sierra Leone Civil War
part of the spillover of the First and Second Liberian Civil Wars
(1991–2002)
Commonwealth victory
1998 Monrovia clashes
part of the aftermath of the First Liberian Civil War
(1998)

Flag of Liberia.svg Johnson's forces (ex-ULIMO-J)
Limited involvement:
Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria
Flag of the United States.svg United States

Flag of Liberia.svg Liberian government (Taylor loyalists)

Partial victory of Charles Taylor

Fourth Nigerian Republic (1999–present)

ConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result
War on terror
part of the post-Cold War and post-9/11 eras
(2001 [36] [note 1] 2021 [37] [note 2] )
Main countries:Main opponents:Major wars ended, ongoing in small operations [38]
Insurgency in the Maghreb
part of the war on terror and the War against the Islamic State
(2002–present)

Flag of Algeria.svg Algeria
Flag of Mauritania.svg Mauritania
Flag of Tunisia.svg Tunisia
Flag of Libya.svg Libya
Flag of Morocco.svg Morocco [39]

Multi-national coalitions:

Flag of Jihad.svg Al-Qaeda and allies:

Flag of Jihad.svg GSPC (until 2007)
Flag of Ansar al-Sharia (Libya).svg Ansar al-Sharia (Libya) (2012–17)
Flag of al-Qaeda.svg Salafia Jihadia [39]


Islamic State flag.svg Islamic State (from 2014)

Ongoing
Conflict in the Niger Delta
(2003–present)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigerian government

supported by:
Flag of Belarus.svg  Belarus [52] [53] [54]

Flag of the union of the Niger delta Republic.jpg Niger Delta Republic [55]

Niger Delta Marine Force [56]
(2017–present)
Reformed Egbesu Fraternities

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafran separatists (from 2021) [57]




Supported by:
Flag of Biafra.svg IPOB elements [58]


Bandits


Pirates


Nigerian mafia

Ongoing
  • ~15,000 militants signed for presidential amnesty program
Operation Juniper Shield
part of the Global War on Terrorism (Islamist insurgency in the Sahel)
(2007–present)

Flag of Algeria.svg  Algeria
Flag of Morocco.svg  Morocco
Flag of Mauritania.svg Mauritania
Flag of Tunisia.svg Tunisia
Flag of Burkina Faso.svg Burkina Faso
Flag of Chad.svg  Chad
Flag of Mali.svg  Mali
Flag of Niger.svg  Niger
Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria
Flag of Senegal.svg  Senegal
Flag of Cameroon.svg Cameroon
Flag of Togo (3-2).svg Togo
Flag of Ghana.svg Ghana
Flag of Cote d'Ivoire.svg Ivory Coast
Flag of Benin.svg Benin
Flag of Cape Verde.svg Cape Verde
Flag of The Gambia.svg Gambia
Flag of Guinea.svg Guinea
Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg Guinea-Bissau
Flag of Liberia.svg Liberia
Flag of Sierra Leone.svg Sierra Leone

Multi-national coalitions:

Ongoing
First Bakassi insurgency
part of the conflict in the Niger Delta and the piracy in the Gulf of Guinea
(2006–2018)
Flag of the Democratic Republic of Bakassi.svg Democratic Republic of Bakassi
Niger Delta militias
Pro-Nigerian militias

Flag of Cameroon.svg Cameroon

Defeat
  • Most militants surrendered in 2009
Somali Civil War
part of the Somali Civil War, conflicts in the Horn of Africa, the Ethiopian–Somali conflict, war against the Islamic State, Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa, and Global War on Terrorism
(2009–present)
Flag of the African Union.svg AUSSOM (2025–present) [72]

Supported by:
Flag of France.svg France [79]
Flag of Italy.svg Italy [80]
Flag of Russia.svg Russia [81] [82]
Flag of Turkey.svg Turkey [72] [83]
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg UAE [84]
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom

Non-combat support:

Flag of the United Nations.svg UNPOS (1995–2013) Flag of the United Nations.svg UNTMIS (2025–present)
Flag of the United Nations.svg UNSOA (2009–2016)
Flag of the United Nations.svg UNSOS (2016–present)
Independent regional forces

Hizbul Islam.svg Hizbul Islam (until 2010; 2012–2013)

Alleged state allies:

Alleged non-state allies:
Slogan of the Houthi Movement.svg Houthis [90] [91]
Pirate Flag.svg Somali pirates [92]


Allies
Islamic State - Yemen Province.svg IS-YP [95]
Pirate Flag.svg Somali pirates [92]


Alleged support:
Flag of Ethiopia.svg Ethiopia [98]
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg United Arab Emirates [99]

Ongoing
Boko Haram insurgency
part of the religious violence in Nigeria, the war against the Islamic State, the Islamist insurgency in the Sahel, and the war on terror [101]
(2009–present)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria


Supported by:


Ongoing (Map of the current military situation)
2009 Boko Haram uprising
part of the Boko Haram insurgency
(2009)

Flag of Nigeria (state).svg Nigerian Government

Flag of Jihad.svg Boko Haram

Violence quelled
Nigerian bandit conflict
part of the Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria
(2011–present [129] )

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Vigilante groups

Various bandit groups

  • Hausa militias
    • Moriki vigilantes group
  • Fulani militias
    • Ali Kachalla bandit group
    • Dogo Giɗe bandit group
    • Kachalla Halilu Sububu Seno bandit group
    • Adamu Aliero Yankuzo bandit group
    • Bello Turji Kachalla bandit gang
    • Dan Karami bandit gang
    • Kachalla Turji bandit gang
    • Kachalla Halilu Sububu Seno bandit gang

Islamist rebels:
Islamic State flag.svg Islamic State [131]

Shahadah Flag.svg Boko Haram
Flag of Ansaru.svg Ansaru [131]
Lakurawa (from c. 2023) [130]

Ongoing
Mali War
part of the Islamist insurgency in the Sahel, War on terror and the War against the Islamic State
(2012-present)
2012–2013
2013–2022/23
2023–
Support:

Native militia 2014–

2015–23
2012

2012–15

2023–24

2024–
FLA Flag.svg FLA Supported by:
Flag of Ukraine.svg Ukraine [148]

2012–
  • CMI (2017–)
  • Flag of the Arab Movement of Azawad.svg MAA (until 2013)
  • Other armed groups and self-defense militias

2012–2017

2017–
2015–2019
2019–
Ongoing
Operation Serval
part of the Mali War and the Islamist insurgency in the Sahel
(2013–2014)

Flag of France (lighter variant).svg France
Flag of Mali.svg Mali
Flag of Chad.svg Chad
Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria
Flag of Burkina Faso.svg Burkina Faso
Flag of Senegal.svg Senegal
Flag of Togo (3-2).svg Togo
MNLA flag.svg MNLA (latter part of conflict)
AFISMA
Supported by:
Flag of Belgium (civil).svg Belgium
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg Canada
Flag of Denmark.svg Denmark
Flag of Germany.svg Germany
Flag of the Netherlands.svg Netherlands
Flag of Spain.svg Spain
Flag of Sweden.svg Sweden
Flag of Poland.svg Poland
Flag of Australia (converted).svg Australia
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg United Arab Emirates
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom
Flag of the United States.svg United States

Flag of Jihad.svgIslamic militants

Malian/French victory
  • All major cities controlled by French and Malian troops.
  • France launched Operation Barkhane on 1 August 2014.
Military intervention against ISIL
part of the War on terror, the Second Libyan Civil War, the War in Iraq (2013–2017), the Syrian civil war and its spillover, the Sinai insurgency, the Boko Haram insurgency, the insurgency in the North Caucasus, the Moro conflict, the insurgency in Cabo Delgado, the Islamic State insurgency in Puntland the Sahel War and the Salafi-jihadist insurgency in the Gaza Strip
(2014–present)
In multiple regions:


In Egypt



In Pakistan

Ongoing; IS militarily defeated in Iraq, Syria and Libya
  • Airstrikes on IS positions in Iraq, Syria, Libya, Nigeria and Afghanistan
  • Multinational humanitarian efforts
  • Arming and supporting local ground forces
  • Millions of civilians in Iraq and Syria flee their homes, sparking a refugee crisis
  • Terrorist attacks in Paris (Jan 2015 and Nov 2015), Brussels (Mar 2016) and many other places
  • Thousands of civilians executed by IS forces in Iraq and Syria
  • IS controlled around 40% of Iraq at its peak in mid-2014 [157]
  • IS controlled around 50% of Syria by late May 2015 [158] [159]
  • Emergence of independently-governed Kurdish regions
  • IS military defeated and lost all of its territory in Libya in December 2017 [160] [161]
  • Boko Haram loses territory, but its insurgency continues [162]
  • IS controlled 5.67% of Syria's land by November 2017 [163] and around 3% of Iraq by October 2017 [164]
  • IS loses all territory in Iraq and most territory in Syria in December 2017 [165]
  • IS loses all remaining territory in Syria in March 2019 [166]
Chibok ambush
part of the Boko Haram insurgency
(2014)

Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Jihad.svg Boko Haram

Boko Haram victory
2015 West African offensive
part of the Boko Haram insurgency
(2015)

Multinational Joint Task Force

Local militias [170]
STTEP (foreign mercenaries) [171] [172]

Islamic State flag.svg Boko Haram (until March 2015)
Islamic State flag.svg ISIL

Multinational Joint Task Force victory
ECOWAS military intervention in the Gambia
part of the 2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis (first three days of the intervention)
(2017-Present)

ECOWAS forces

Flag of The Gambia.svg Pro-Jammeh forces

Protestors against continued ECOWAS presence

Ongoing
  • Amidst the Gambian constitutional crisis , ECOWAS intervenes in the country militarily (at the request of Adama Barrow) without resistance from pro-Jammeh forces. [178]
  • Jammeh leaves the country as forces approach Banjul, and Barrow arrives as President days later.
  • 2,500 ECOWAS troops remain in The Gambia.
  • Clash between ECOWAS forces and alleged Pro-Jammeh elements in The Gambian military in April 2017.
  • Protests against continued presence of ECOWAS forces.
  • Clash between ECOWAS forces and MFDC Senegalese rebels on the Gambia-Senegal border in January 2022.
Chad Basin campaign (2018–2020)
part of the Boko Haram insurgency

Multinational Joint Task Force (MJTF)

Self-defense militias

Islamic State flag.svg Islamic State


Flag of Jihad.svg Boko Haram

Partial Multinational Joint Task Force victory
  • Much territory is retaken from rebel forces
  • Insurgents retain significant presence in the Chad Basin
  • ISWAP experiences extensive leadership struggles, resulting in the successive purges of two leaders and several sub-commanders
Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria
part of the herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria and the conflict in the Niger Delta
(2021–present)
Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria
Spillover into Bakassi:
Flag of Cameroon.svg Cameroon

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafran separatists
Yoruba Nation OduduwaStar Flag.png Oduduwa separatists (only against Fulani herders)

Ongoing
Anambra Ambush
part of the insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria
(2023)

Flag of the United States.svg United States
Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria

Flag of Biafra.svg Biafran separatists (suspected)

Suspected Biafra separatists victory
  • Ambush Successful
Nigerien crisis (2023–2024)
part of the aftermath of the 2023 Nigerien coup d'état


ECOWAS takes no military action
  • ECOWAS ultimatum to return to civilian rule expires on 6 August
  • ECOWAS authorizes military intervention in Niger on 10 August
  • ECOWAS lifts its sanctions on Niger on 24 February 2024
  • Niger suspended from African Union and leaves ECOWAS
  • Niger becomes a founding member of the Alliance of Sahel States
  • End of U.S. and French military intervention in Niger
  • President Bazoum remains in house arrest

Peace agreements

Peace agreements signed

See also

References

  1. Haskin 2005, pp. 24–25.
  2. Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, p. 101.
  3. Dorn 2016, p. 32.
  4. Nugent 2004, p. 97.
  5. Baxter, Peter (2015). Biafra : the Nigerian Civil War, 1967–1970. Solihull, West Midlands, England: Helion. p. 13. ISBN   9781909982369.
  6. Uche, "Oil, British Interests and the Nigerian Civil War" (2008), p. 130. "In reality, however, the British government supplied many more arms than it was publicly prepared to admit. Apart from direct arms supplies, it provided military intelligence to the Nigerian government and may have helped it to access sophisticated arms and mercenaries through third parties."
  7. Achebe, Chinua (2012). There was a country: a personal history of Biafra. New York: Penguin. pp. 104, 154. ISBN   978-1-59420-482-1. The initial neutrality of the USSR's Western rivals, including Britain and the United States in particular, I gather, provided an opening for the Soviets to send MiG fighters and technical assistance to the Nigerians, thereby including the region in the cold war theater.
  8. Sadleman, StephenIsrael, Nigeria and the Biafra civil war, 1967–70 (2000). The Ties That Divide. Columbia University Press. p. 86. ISBN   9780231122290 . Retrieved 8 June 2018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  9. Diamond, Stanley (2007). "Who Killed Biafra?". Dialectical Anthropology . 31 (1/3): 339–362. doi:10.1007/s10624-007-9014-9. JSTOR   29790795. S2CID   144828601.
  10. Stremlau 2015, p. 237.
  11. Malcolm MacDonald: Bringing an End to Empire, 1995, p. 416.
  12. Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria, 2001, p. 54.[ full citation needed ]
  13. Africa 1960–1970: Chronicle and Analysis, 2009, p. 423.[ full citation needed ]
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Ijalaye, David A. (July 1971). "Was 'Biafra' at Any Time a State in International Law?". American Journal of International Law. 65 (3): 553–554. doi:10.1017/S0002930000147311. JSTOR   2198977. S2CID   152122313 . Retrieved 18 August 2022.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Hurst, Ryan (2009-06-21). "Republic of Biafra (1967–1970)" . Retrieved 2024-01-11.
  16. A Little Help from His Friends Time , 04/25/1977, Vol. 109 Issue 17, p. 57
  17. "Nigeria to Move, At U.S. Request, In Zaire Dispute", Washington Post, 23 March 1977, p. A1; ProQuest   146797864.
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  19. Zaire Says East Germany Supplies Arms to Rebels New York Times , May 1, 1977. Retrieved on April 8, 2017.
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  27. Talhami, Ghada Hashem (30 November 2018). Palestinian Refugees: Pawns to Political Actors. Nova Publishers. ISBN   9781590336496 via Google Books.
  28. Middle East Review. World of Information. 1988. p. 30.
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  30. UNHCR, The Tamaboros and their role ... (1999).
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  35. BBC News, Britain's role in Sierra Leone (2000).
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Notes

  1. In opposition to the Union of South Africa, which had joined the war, several thousand Boer rebels rose in the Maritz Rebellion and re-founded the South African Republic in 1914. The rebels allied with Germany and operated in and out of German colonial territory during the South West Africa Campaign. The rebels were defeated by British imperial forces in 1915.
  2. The Senussi Order was a Muslim political-religious tariqa (Sufi order) and clan in Libya, previously under Ottoman control but lost to Italy in 1912. In 1915, the Senussi were courted by the Ottoman Empire and Germany and the Grand Senussi, Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, declared jihad and attacked the Italians in Libya and British controlled Egypt in the Senussi Campaign.
  3. The Sultanate of Darfur aligned with the Central Powers and was invaded by British forces in Sudan in the Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition of 1916.
  4. The Somali Dervish Revolt began before the war. The movement received symbolic support from the Ottoman and Ethiopian governments.
  5. ONUC, the United Nations Operation in the Congo, included troops from Ghana, Tunisia, Morocco, Ethiopia, Ireland, Guinea, Sweden, Mali, Sudan, Liberia, Canada, India, Indonesia and the United Arab Republic among others. [1]
  6. The secession of Katanga and South Kasai was also supported by South Africa, France, Portuguese Angola and the neighbouring Central African Federation. [2] [3] However, neither was ever officially recognised by any state. [4]
  7. Close air support
  8. The exact origin of Ansaru is unclear, but it had already existed as Boko Haram faction [116] before officially announcing its foundation as separate group on 1 January 2012. [116] [117] [118] The group had no known military presence in Nigeria from 2015, but several of its members appear to be still active. The group appear allied with rag-tag factions in the Nigerian bandit conflict and were recently behind the Abuja–Kaduna train attack [119]
  9. Following Mohammed Yusuf's death, Boko Haram splintered into numerous factions which no longer operated under a unified leadership. Though Abubakar Shekau eventually became the preeminent commander of the movement, he never really controlled all Boko Haram groups. Instead, the factions were loosely allied, but also occasionally clashed with each other. [123] [124] This situation changed in 2015 when Shekau pledged allegiance to ISIL. The leadership of ISIL eventually decided to replace Shekau as a local commander with Yusuf's son Abu Musab al-Barnawi, whereupon the movement split completely. Shekau no longer recognized the authority of ISIL's central command, and his loyalists started to openly fight the followers of al-Barnawi. Regardless, Shekau did never officially renounce his pledge of allegiance to ISIL as a whole; his forces are thus occasionally regarded as "second branch of ISWAP". Overall, the relation of Shekau with ISIL remains confused and ambiguous. In the Battle of Sambisa Forest of 2021 ISWAP fighters killed Shekau and al-Barnawi nominally remains head of ISWAP [125]
  10. MINUSMA, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali, replaced and absorbed the troops from the AFISMA. It included troops from Chad, Bangladesh, Senegal, Togo, Egypt, Burkina Faso, Niger, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Germany, China, Benin, among others
  11. Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Guinea are members of ECOWAS that were suspended following coup d'états which established military juntas in their respective countries.
  12. Cape Verde is opposed to military intervention in Niger, instead advocating for a diplomatic solution.
  1. Origins date back to the 1980s.
  2. The war on terror was also officially declared over in May 2010 and again in May 2013. But small-scale operations ongoing after 2021.
  3. ISIS is sometimes in conflict with and/or fighting against Al-Qaeda and the Taliban, see: Al-Qaeda–Islamic State conflict and ISIS-Taliban conflict.
  4. First Islamic Emirate until 2001 and the Taliban insurgency until 2021.
  5. The Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda link allegations were widely disputed and now largely believed to have been false.