History of flags

Last updated
Before the Battle, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1858), showing a woman attaching a flag to the pole of a spear Dante Gabriel Rossetti - Before the Battle.jpg
Before the Battle, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1858), showing a woman attaching a flag to the pole of a spear

A flag is a distinctive piece of fabric used as a symbol, a signalling device, or for decoration. While the origin of flags is unknown, flag-like symbols have been described as far back as 11th century BC China and have been used by other ancient civilisations such as Egypt and Rome.

Contents

During the Medieval period, silk from China allowed a variety of peoples, such as the Arabs and the Norse, to develop flags which flew from poles. Developments in heraldry led to the creation of personal heraldic banners for rulers and other important people in the European kingdoms. Flags began to be regularly used on board ships for identification and communication in the Age of Sail. In the 18th century and onwards, a rising tide of nationalism around the world meant that common people began to regularly identify themselves with nation-states and their symbols, including flags. In the modern day, every national entity and many sub-national entities employ flags for identification.

Etymology

While the exact etymological origin is unknown, the word 'flag' first appears in English in the late 15th century. Possible origins include a variation of Middle English flakken, "to flap, flutter" which may further originate from Old Norse flaka, "to flicker, flutter, hang loose." These may be derived from Proto-Germanic flago- and the Proto-Indo-European root plak- ("to be flat"). The word first seems to have come into widespread use in the 16th century and soon came to encompass a variety of items, including banners, ensigns, gonfalons and others. [1] [2]

Proto-Flags

The origin of flags is unknown. Some of the earliest known banners come from ancient China to identify different parts of the army. [3] For example, it is recorded that the armies of the Zhou dynasty in the 11th century BC carried a white banner before them, although no extant depictions exist of these banners. An early representation of such Chinese flags is a low-relief sculpture on the tomb of Emperor Wu of Han that shows two horseman bearing banners attached to poles and staffs. [1] [4]

Illustration of Egyptian standards. Egyptian Standards from Flags; some account of their history and uses.png
Illustration of Egyptian standards.

Early representations of standards can be found on Egyptian bas-reliefs such as the Narmer Palette, which is said to be the earliest representation. [6] These vexilloids, or flag-like standards, were symbols of the nomes of pre-dynastic Egypt. [7] In fact, ancient Greek writers attributed the creation of standards to the Egyptians. According to Diodorus, Egyptian standards generally consisted of figures of sacred animals on the end of a staff or spear. Another often used symbol was a figure resembling an expanded semi-circular fan. [8]

Roman standards

Modern reproduction of a Roman cavalry vexillum Museum Petronell - Vexillum Ala I.jpg
Modern reproduction of a Roman cavalry vexillum

While China, Greece, Persia are all known to have used cloth banners to designate parts of their armies, in ancient times, it was the Romans who made the most widespread use of flag like symbols to represent their army. These banners, also known as a vexillum, [lower-alpha 1] were used to represent each army unit starting around 100 BC. [3] [10] The vexillum was composed of a piece of cloth fastened to a cross bar at the top of a spear, sometimes with fringe around the outside. [11] The only extant Roman vexillum is dated to the first half of the 3rd century AD and is housed in the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts. It is an almost square piece of coarse linen cloth with the image of the goddess Victoria. [12]

Roman emperors used a banner similar in form called a labarum. It frequently bore upon it a representation of the emperor, sometimes by himself and sometimes accompanied by the heads of members of his family. It became associated with Constantine the Great and later Christianity after he supposedly marched under a labarum bearing the Chi Rho. [13] These Roman standards were guarded with religious veneration in the temples of the metropolis and chief cities of the empire. [14]

Another Roman standard that was wide spread by the time of the 4th century author Vegetius was the draco or dragon, a symbol originally borrowed from the Parthians some time after the death of Trajan. It would take the form of a dragon affixed to a lance with silver jaws and a body of colourful silk. When the wind blew down its open jaws the body would become inflated, similar to a windsock. [15] [16] It would sometimes contain a device to produce a shrill whistle sound, and was used to intimidate enemy troops. [16]

Medieval period

With the innovation of silk in China and subsequent propagation along the Silk Road, flags as we know them today began to develop. [17] Flags that comprise cloth attached to an upright pole at one side seem to have first been regularly used by the Saracens who introduced it to the Western world, although they would not gain popularity in the latter until the 9th century. flags are often mentioned in the early history of Islam and may have been copied from India. [18] Tradition holds that a black flag was flown by Muhammad during the Conquest of Mecca, in the 7th century, and that his followers flew green flags. There is evidence of such standards being used by the grandsons of the Muhammad during the Rashidun Caliphate onward which were generally triangular and flown from a vertical flag pole. [19] [20] Subsequent Islamic dynasties used a variety of different coloured banners to identify themselves and were often drawn from flags supposedly flown by the prophet during his life. [lower-alpha 2] [21]

Another 9th century vertical flying flag is the raven banner that was used widely by the Vikings. Although no complete illustration of this banner exists, it probably appears on Northumbrian coins from the start of the century and later, in the 11th century, is most likely seen on the Bayeux Tapestry. [22]

Heraldic flags

Banners of arms belonging to the mid-sixteenth-century Knights of the Order of the Garter supported by their respective heraldic beasts Heraldic Banners of the Knights of the Garter mid-16th Century.png
Banners of arms belonging to the mid-sixteenth-century Knights of the Order of the Garter supported by their respective heraldic beasts

A major stage in the development of flags in the west was the art of heraldry. Heraldry, which developed in approximately the second quarter of the 12th century, primarily deals with identification by means of devices placed on shields, with these symbols becoming the means by which knights and later other upper-class individuals became identified. After some time, these heraldic badges came to be emblazoned on flags. To start with, the banners were extensions of the gonfanon, which consisted of a flag tied to a lance, but soon became diverse displays of important people's arms. [23] Traditionally, there are several types such as, pennons, heraldic standards, or banners of arms. [24]

The pennon was a small, elongated flag with either pointed or swallow-tailed end. It would have been marked with the badge or other armorial ensign of the owner and by displayed upon their lance as a personal ensign. [25] A banner of arms is square or oblong and larger than the pennon, bearing the entire coat of arms of the owner and composed precisely, as upon a shield, but in a square or rectangular shape. [lower-alpha 3] [26]

Royal Standard of Henry VII of England (Dragon and flames).svg
Royal Standard of Henry VII of England (Greyhound and Roses of Lancaster).svg
Royal Standard of Henry VII of England (Lion of England).svg
Three of Henry VII's heraldic standards from across his reign.

The heraldic standard appeared around the middle of the 14th century, and it was in general use by personages of high rank during the two following centuries. The standard appears to have been adopted for the special purpose of displaying badges. [27] The standard was often more versatile than a banner of arms because no one could possess more than one banner, since it displayed a set of unchangeable heraldic arms. A single individual; however, could possess as many standards as they wanted, since this flag displayed badges, which could be created at any time the owner wanted. For example, the standards of Henry VII were mostly green and white (the colours of the Tudor livery) and had in one "a red firye dragon;" in another, "a donne kowe;" and in a third, "a silver greyhound and two red roses." [28]

Heraldic standards are still in use in Scotland; at Highland gatherings, the standard of the clan chiefs is displayed on the pipes of the Pipe major of the clan. [29]

Flags during the crusades

During the Crusades, beginning at the end of the 11th century, there were developments of flags. During the first crusade banners were used by kings and nobles in an extensions of the practices in Europe with the addition of some holy orders adopting them. However, about a century into the period the rank and file from different realms began to differentiate themselves by means of variations in the colour of the crosses upon their shoulders. [30] In 1188 Philip II of France decreed that his colours be added to a cross (a red cross on a white field) and soon after Henry II of England decreed the use of a white cross on a red field. These coloured crosses would for some unknown reason be swapped, but remained in use in England and France as symbols of the kingdoms, in the form of Saint George's Cross and the Cross of St. Denis respectively. Other Realms had similar stories, for example the black and white Cross of Teutonic Knights was also born of the crusades. [31]

Maritime flags

Flags have probably been used at sea as a form of communication since the earliest days of trading ships, with some evidence of the practice as far back as the Ancient Greeks. [24] [32] However, as international trade increased during the Age of Sail in the early 17th century, European ships began displaying flags depicting their nationality, city of origin, and designation as military or trade ships. [33] These flags eventually evolved into the national flags and maritime flags of today. As early as the 13th century, the Italian maritime republics were using distinct flags for naval identification and by the 16th century English and Scottish ships were flying flags to show their country of origin, with designs derived from badges worn by their respective soldiers during the Middle Ages. [34] [35] Flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals; see, International maritime signal flags. [36]

National flags

Chinese Second World War propaganda poster showing American, Chinese and British soldiers with the national flags of their respective countries INF3-334 Unity of Strength American, Chinese and British soldiers with flags of their countries.jpg
Chinese Second World War propaganda poster showing American, Chinese and British soldiers with the national flags of their respective countries

Originally, flags representing a country would generally be the personal flag of its rulers; however, over time, the practice of using personal banners as flags of places was abandoned in favour of flags that had some significance to the nation, often its patron saint. Early examples of these were the maritime republics such as Genoa that could be said to have a national flag as early as the 12th century. [37] However, these were still mostly used in the context of marine identification.

An early example, that prefigured to developments to come, was the Prince's Flag which emerged as a flag of resistance and as a symbol of liberty during the 80 years war which lead to the formation of the United Provinces. It is notable for being one of the first European flags that broke with the tradition set down in the medieval context of cross flags representing realms. [38]

Although some flags date back earlier, widespread use of flags outside of military or naval context begins only with the rise of idea of the nation state at the end of the 18th century and particularly are a product of the Age of Revolution. Revolutions such as those in France and America called for people to begin think of themselves as citizens as opposed to subjects under a king, and thus necessitated flags that represented the collective citizenry, not just the power and right of a ruling family. [33] [39] With nationalism becoming common across Europe in the 19th century, national flags came to represent most of the states of Europe. [33] Flags also began fostering a sense of unity between different peoples, such as the Union Jack representing a union between England and Scotland, or began to represent unity between nations in a perceived shared struggle, for example, the Pan-Slavic colors or later Pan-Arab colors. [40]

As Europeans colonised significant portions of the world, they exported ideas of nationhood and national symbols, including flags, with the adoption of a flag becoming seen as integral to the nation-building process. [41] Political change, social reform, and revolutions combined with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the birth of new nations and flags around the globe. [42]

With so many flags being created, interest in these designs began to develop and the study of flags, vexillology, at both professional and amateur levels, emerged. After World War II, Western vexillology went through a phase of rapid development, with many research facilities and publications being established. [43]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heraldry</span> Heraldic achievements design and transmission

Heraldry is a discipline relating to the design, display and study of armorial bearings, as well as related disciplines, such as vexillology, together with the study of ceremony, rank and pedigree. Armory, the best-known branch of heraldry, concerns the design and transmission of the heraldic achievement. The achievement, or armorial bearings usually includes a coat of arms on a shield, helmet and crest, together with any accompanying devices, such as supporters, badges, heraldic banners and mottoes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Labarum</span> Roman military standard displaying XP for Christ

The labarum was a vexillum that displayed the "Chi-Rho" symbol ☧, a christogram formed from the first two Greek letters of the word "Christ" – Chi (χ) and Rho (ρ). It was first used by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great.

Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vexillology</span> Study of flags

Vexillology is the study of the history, symbolism and usage of flags or, by extension, any interest in flags in general.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saltire</span> Heraldic and vexillogical symbol in the form of a diagonal cross

A saltire, also called Saint Andrew's Cross or the crux decussata, is a heraldic symbol in the form of a diagonal cross. The word comes from the Middle French sautoir, Medieval Latin saltatoria ("stirrup").

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coat of arms of England</span> National arms of England

The coat of arms of England is the coat of arms historically used as arms of dominion by the monarchs of the Kingdom of England, and now used to symbolise England generally, but not officially. The arms were adopted c.1200 by the Plantagenet kings and continued to be used by successive English and British monarchs; they are currently quartered with the arms of Scotland and Ireland in the coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Historically they were also quartered with the arms of France, representing the English claim to the French throne, and Hanover.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vexilloid</span> Flag-like object that represents an entity

A vexilloid is any flag-like (vexillary) object used by countries, organisations, or individuals as a form of representation other than flags. American vexillologist Whitney Smith coined the term vexilloid in 1958, defining it as

An object which functions as a flag but differs from it in some respect, usually appearance. Vexilloids are characteristic of traditional societies and often consist of a staff with an emblem, such as a carved animal, at the top.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pennon</span> Flag that is larger at the hoist than at the fly

A pennon, also known as a pennant or pendant, is a long narrow flag which is larger at the hoist than at the fly, ie., the flag starts to narrow down as it moves away from the flagpole, when viewed from left to right. It can have several shapes, such as triangular, tapering or triangular swallowtail, etc. In maritime use, pennants are to be hung from the main truck.

<i>Vexillum</i> Military standard of the ancient Roman army

The vexillum was a flag-like object used as a military standard by units in the Roman army. A common vexillum displayed imagery of the Roman aquila on a reddish backdrop.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecclesiastical heraldry</span> Use of heraldry in the Christian church

Ecclesiastical heraldry refers to the use of heraldry within Christianity for dioceses, organisations and Christian clergy. Initially used to mark documents, ecclesiastical heraldry evolved as a system for identifying people and dioceses. It is most formalized within the Catholic Church, where most bishops, including the Pope, have a personal coat of arms. Clergy in Anglican, Lutheran, Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches follow similar customs, as do institutions such as schools and dioceses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gonfalon</span> Banner hung from a crossbar on a staff

The gonfalon, gonfanon, gonfalone is a type of heraldic flag or banner, often pointed, swallow-tailed, or with several streamers, and suspended from a crossbar in an identical manner to the ancient Roman vexillum. It was first adopted by Italian medieval communes, and later, by local guilds, corporations and districts. The difference between a gonfalon with long tails and a standard is that a gonfalon displays the device on the non-tailed area, and the standard displays badges down the whole length of the flag.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heraldic flag</span> Flag containing coat of arms or heraldic badge

In heraldry and vexillology, a heraldic flag is a flag containing coats of arms, heraldic badges, or other devices used for personal identification.

For most of its history, the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire did not use heraldry in the Western European sense of permanent motifs transmitted through hereditary right. Various large aristocratic families employed certain symbols to identify themselves; the use of the cross, and of icons of Christ, the Theotokos and various saints is also attested on seals of officials, but these were often personal rather than family emblems. Likewise, various emblems were used in official occasions and for military purposes, such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the cross or the labarum. Despite the abundance of pre-heraldic symbols in Byzantine society from the 10th century, only through contact with the Crusaders in the 12th century, and particularly following the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) and the establishment of Frankish principalities on Byzantine soil from 1204 onwards, did heraldic uses penetrate in Byzantium. A native Byzantine heraldry began to appear in the middle and lower rungs of aristocratic families in the 14th century, coinciding with the decline of imperial authority and with the fragmentation of political power under the late Palaiologan emperors. However, it never achieved the breadth of adoption, or the systematization, of its Western analogues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frederick Brownell</span> South African herald, vexillologist and genealogist (1940–2019)

Frederick Gordon Brownell was a South African herald, vexillologist, and genealogist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Royal standards of England</span> English heraldic flags used in battles and pageantry

The royal standards of England were narrow, tapering swallow-tailed heraldic flags, of considerable length, used mainly for mustering troops in battle, in pageants and at funerals, by the monarchs of England. In high favour during the Tudor period, the Royal English Standard was a flag that was of a separate design and purpose to the Royal Banner. It featured St George's Cross at its head, followed by a number of heraldic devices, a supporter, badges or crests, with a motto—but it did not bear a coat of arms. The Royal Standard changed its composition frequently from reign to reign, but retained the motto Dieu et mon droit, meaning God and my right; which was divided into two bands: Dieu et mon and Droyt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Helmet (heraldry)</span> Heraldic device

In heraldic achievements, the helmet or helm is situated above the shield and bears the torse and crest. The style of helmet displayed varies according to rank and social status, and these styles developed over time, in step with the development of actual military helmets. In some traditions, especially German and Nordic heraldry, two or three helmets may be used in a single achievement of arms, each representing a fief to which the bearer has a right. For this reason, the helmets and crests in German and Nordic arms are considered essential to the coat of arms and are never separated from it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alfred Znamierowski</span> Polish vexollologist (1940–2019)

Alfred Znamierowski was a Polish vexillologist, heraldist, illustrator, and journalist. During his career he published several books and designed hundreds of coats of arms, flags, banners and seals for over 200 different municipalities and institutions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crosses in heraldry</span> Cross symbols used in heraldry

A number of cross symbols were developed for the purpose of the emerging system of heraldry, which appeared in Western Europe in about 1200. This tradition is partly in the use of the Christian cross an emblem from the 11th century, and increasingly during the age of the Crusades. Many cross variants were developed in the classical tradition of heraldry during the late medieval and early modern periods. Heraldic crosses are inherited in modern iconographic traditions and are used in numerous national flags.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coat of arms of the Prince of Wales</span> Personal coat of arms of the Prince of Wales

The coat of arms of the Prince of Wales is the official personal heraldic insignia of the Princes of Wales, a title traditionally granted to the heir apparent of the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, formerly the Kingdom of Great Britain and before that the Kingdom of England.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Schwenkel</span> 15th-century German roll of arms

In vexillology, a schwenkel is a type of flag accessory that was used in medieval heraldry. It consists of a long, narrow strip of cloth, usually of a different color than the main flag, that hangs from the upper corner of the flagstaff. The schwenkel was often decorated with fringes, tassels, or other ornaments.

References

Notes

  1. ↑ In medieval times the pastoral staff of the bishop often had a small scarf attached to it. This was known as the vexillum, and was supposed to be derived from the Labarum because of its association with the first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great. [9]
  2. ↑ The Umayyad Caliphate are said to have used white flag to honour the Battle of Badr, Muhamad's first major battle. The Abbasid Caliphate used a Black Standard to set themselves apart from the Umayyads who they overthrew and as a sign of mourning for the deaths of the prophet's relatives at the Battle of Karbala. The Shia Fatimid Caliphate used the white standards as well as green flags as it was thought to be the prophet's favourite colour. [21] See Flags in early Islam for more information.
  3. ↑ "In the olden time, when a Knight had distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry, it was the custom to mark his meritorious conduct by prompt advancement on the very field of battle. In such a case, the point or points of the good Knight’s Pennon were rent off, and thus the ... small Flag was reduced to the square form of the Banner, by which thenceforth he was to be distinguished" - Boutell (1914), pp. 247–248

Citations

  1. 1 2 Barraclough 1971, p. 1.
  2. ↑ Online Etymology Dictionary.
  3. 1 2 Jones 2014, p. 10.
  4. ↑ Xing 2013, p. 1.
  5. ↑ Macgeorge 1881, p. 14.
  6. ↑ Macgeorge 1881, p. 13.
  7. ↑ Slater & Znamierowski 1997, p. 13.
  8. ↑ Macgeorge 1881, pp. 13–14.
  9. ↑ Hulme 1896, p. 2.
  10. ↑ Barraclough 1971, p. 2.
  11. ↑ Macgeorge 1881, p. 24.
  12. ↑ Rostovtzeff 1942, p. 92.
  13. ↑ Macgeorge 1881, pp. 24–25.
  14. ↑ Hulme 1896, p. 3.
  15. ↑ Perrin 1922, pp. 10–11.
  16. 1 2 Smith 1975, p. 61.
  17. ↑ Marshall 2017, p. 5.
  18. ↑ Britannica 2022.
  19. ↑ Barraclough 1971, p. 3.
  20. ↑ Marshall 2017, p. 117.
  21. 1 2 Marshall 2017, pp. 116–117.
  22. ↑ Barraclough 1971, pp. 3–4.
  23. ↑ Barraclough 1971, pp. 5–6.
  24. 1 2 Jones 2014, p. 11.
  25. ↑ Boutell 1914, p. 246.
  26. ↑ Boutell 1914, p. 247.
  27. ↑ Boutell 1914, pp. 250–251.
  28. ↑ Swinburne 1911, p. 456.
  29. ↑ Barraclough 1971, p. 7.
  30. ↑ Perrin 1922, pp. 17–18.
  31. ↑ Elgenius 2019, p. 31.
  32. ↑ Barraclough 1971, p. 247.
  33. 1 2 3 Nadler 2016.
  34. ↑ Cartledge 2013, p. 2.
  35. ↑ Perrin 1922, pp. 26–29.
  36. ↑ Smith 1975, p. 86.
  37. ↑ Barraclough 1971, pp. 7–8.
  38. ↑ Elgenius 2019, p. 35.
  39. ↑ Inglefield & Mould 1979, p. 48.
  40. ↑ Bartlett 2011, p. 31.
  41. ↑ Virmani 1999, p. 169.
  42. ↑ Inglefield & Mould 1979, p. 50.
  43. ↑ Xing 2013, p. 2.

Bibliography

  • Barraclough, E.M.C. (1971). Flags of the World. Great Britain: William Cloves & Sons Ltd. ISBN   0723213380.
  • Bartlett, Ralph G. C. (2011). Unity in Flags (PDF). 24th International Congress of Vexillology. Alexandria, Virginia: International Federation of Vexillological Associations.
  • Boutell, Charles (1914). Fox-Davies, Arthur Charles (ed.). The Handbook to English Heraldry (11th ed.). Reeves & Turner. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  • Cartledge, John (2013). Flags and emblems of the British Republic 1649-1660 (PDF). 25th International Congress of Vexillology. Rotterdam: International Federation of Vexillological Associations.
  • Elgenius, Gabriella (2019). Symbols of nations and nationalism : celebrating nationhood. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN   9781349590476.
  • Hulme, Frederick Edward (1896). The Flags of the World. Frederick Warne & Co. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  • Inglefield, Eric; Mould, Tony (1979). Flags. Ward Lock. ISBN   9780706356526.
  • Jones, Gareth, ed. (2014). Complete Flags of the World. Dorling Kindersley Publishing Staff. ISBN   9781409353713.
  • Macgeorge, Andrew (1881). Flags; some account of their history and uses. Blackie & Son. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  • Marshall, Tim (2017). A Flag Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of National Symbols. London: Eliot & Thompson. ISBN   9781783963034.
  • Nadler, Ben (14 June 2016). "Where Do Flags Come From?". The Atlantic . Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  • Perrin, William Gordon (1922). British flags, their early history, and their development at sea; with an account of the origin of the flag as a national device. Cambridge University Press.
  • Rostovtzeff, Michael (November 1942). "Vexillum and Victory". The Journal of Roman Studies. 32 (1–2). Cambridge University Press: 92–106. doi:10.2307/296463.
  • Slater, Stephen; Znamierowski, Alfred (1997). The World Encyclopedia of Flags & Heraldry (2007 ed.). Fall River Press. ISBN   9781435118386.
  • Smith, Whitney (1975). Flags through the ages and across the world. New York. ISBN   978-0-07-059093-9.
  • Swinburne, Henry Lawrence (1911). "Flag"  . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  • Virmani, Arundhati (August 1999). "National Symbols under Colonial Domination: The Nationalization of the Indian Flag, March-August 1923". Past & Present (164). Oxford University Press: 169–197. JSTOR   651278.
  • Xing, Fei (2013). The Study of Vexillology in China (PDF). 25th International Congress of Vexillology. Rotterdam: International Federation of Vexillological Associations.
  • "flag". Encyclopedia Britannica. Aug 24, 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  • "flag". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.