Sexual economics

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Sexual economics relates to how participants think, feel, behave and give feedback during sex or relevant sexual events. This theory states that the thinking, preferences and behavior of men and women follow the fundamental economic principles. [1] It was proposed by psychologists Roy Baumeister and Kathleen Vohs.

Contents

Definitions

Sexual Economics defines sex as a marketplace deal. In this theory, sex is the thing that women have, and men want. Therefore, sex is considered as a resource that women hold overall. Women hold on to their bodies until they receive enough motivation to give it up, such as love, commitment, time, attention, caring, loyalty, respect, happiness and money from another party. On the other side, men are the ones who offer the resources that entice women into sex. [1]

Sexual Economics is based on social exchange theory: people are willing to give up something if they can get in exchange what they believe will benefit them more. [2] As an example, assume one party holds a burger, and a hungry man wants the burger more than the money in his pocket. In this situation, the party who holds the burger has to want the money more than he wants the burger for the final exchange to take place. However, sometimes one party is more eager to exchange for what the other party holds, this causes a bargaining power imbalance. [3] At this point, the party who is less willing to exchange what they have has a higher control in this relationship. In the example of a sexual relationship, if one side wants to have sexual intercourse less than the other, he or she can hold out until a more attractive offer is made. [4]

In the view of Mark Regnerus, the economic perspective is clear. The behavior he analyzed in the market place states that the majority rule is a political principle that often works in human society, but sex is an exception and minority rules work are applicable. [5]

Female and male status

Sexual intercourse is often more attractive (if the state of affairs is equal for both parties, e.g., a man and a woman with equal economic status) to men than to women.[ citation needed ] In primates, male aggression against females has the effect of controlling female sexuality for the male's reproductive advantage. Furthermore, the evolutionary perspective provides a hypothesis to help explain cross-culture variation in the frequency of male aggression against women. Variables include the protection of women by family or community, male alliances, and male strategies for protecting spouses and achieving adulterous mating and male resource control. [6]

According to sexual economics theory, males and females are different both physically and physiologically. Men give women resources, and then women will allow sex to take place. Under the context of sex, the trade of sex and resources keeps happening through eras and cultures, and society has acknowledged that female sexuality has more value than male sexuality.[ citation needed ] For instance, men and women have different feelings about their virginity. Women are more likely to think of their virginity as a precious gift and cherish it, while men see their virginity as a shameful condition and want to get rid of it early in life. [7]

It is also claimed that prostitution (the exchange of sex for money or equivalent items) may be a threat to women's status because sex is mostly considered as part of an intimate relationship instead of a contract. [8]

Society situations

Domestic violence

Some examples could be used to prove that the theory of the sex economy valid. In a violent relationship, women are more likely to receive violence compared to men. In a research study, the results showed that jealousy is the most often used explanation for domestic violence for women, [9] but for men two emotions lead to violence. The first one involves destructive thoughts (also refers to "critical inner voice") dominant like "She's trying to fool you" or "You are not man enough if you don't control her in mind and body." The other element contains a detrimental illusion (also refers to "fantasy bond"), it brings a sense that another person constituted a whole with you, and it is essential for your happiness. [10]

Several advances in promoting equality between sexes have been made (such as abortion law modification in some areas), but most societies are still patriarchal societies. Men are thought of as stronger than women, especially physically. The expectation of being masculine and more powerful than women could be destructive for men by leading to violence. Therefore, a woman who has a violent partner would choose to offer sex to comfort and mostly distract them from abusing her. In this case, trading sex is considered as one useful way for women to escape emotional and physical abuse from men in a violent relationship. [1]

Adultery

The punishment for adultery is different between different genders in some countries. In some cultures, adultery is considered a crime, and although punishments for adultery such as stoning are also applied to men, the vast majority of the victims are women. [11] In some cultures, the wives' adultery can be a viable reason if the husband wants to divorce, however, husbands' adultery cannot justify divorce. This is the evidence for sex being considered a female resource. In this situation, sex is traded in exchange for getting married; therefore, if a wife has sex outside her husband, she's giving away what her husband sees as his.

In the Philippines, the law differentiates based on gender. A woman can be charged as a criminal of adultery if she has had sexual intercourse with someone other than her husband. However, a man can only be charged with crimes such as concubinage, either keeping his mistress at home, or co-habitating with her, or having sexual relationships under scandalous circumstances. [12]

Pornography

There is a big difference between men and women on the topic of their personal use and acceptance of pornography. [13] It is shown in many research papers that men are more likely to view pornography compared to women, the most obvious evidence is that there are more male users on pornography websites than female users. Pornhub, as one of the biggest pornography websites in the world, reported of the year at the end of 2019. [14] There were 32% female users in 2019, while 68% of Pornhub users were male, which means the number of male users was two times more than female users worldwide. [15] Therefore, at least watching sex is more attractive to men than women based on the data derived.

Porn stars

Porn stars are people who perform sex acts in front of cameras for pornographic videos/movies. Female porn stars enter the industry for many different reasons, such as being repressed for a long time and wanting to abreact via this job. Receiving a satisfying pay after each movie ($390-$1950 for female actor) [16] is also one of the attractive factors for entering the pornography industry. [17]

However, health care for porn stars is in a lack of security and in some porn women are degraded and used in some scenes. Women in porn can become dehumanized and treated as objects, abused, broken and discarded at the end. [18] Therefore, even in commercial sexual culture, sexism and misogynist violence still exist in today's society.

Human trafficking

Human trafficking is a global issue and has consistently existed for centuries, nevertheless, it entered public consciousness around the beginning of the twenty-first century. [19] Human trafficking is the process of enslaving people and exploiting them. [20] Sex trafficking is one of the most common types of human trafficking. According to the data derived by The United Nations Office for Drugs and Crime [21] in 2016, 51% identified victims of human trafficking were women, children made up 28% and 21% were men. 72% of those who were exploited in the sex industry were women, while 63% of identified traffickers were men. [22] Most victims are placed in abusive and coercive situations, but escaping is also difficult and life-threatening for them. [23]

global human trafficking from countries of origin and destination Countries of origin Yellow: Moderate number of persons Orange: High number of persons Red: Very high number of persons Countries of destination Light blue: High number of persons Blue: Very high number of persons Trafficking of women, children and men.png
global human trafficking from countries of origin and destination Countries of origin Yellow: Moderate number of persons Orange: High number of persons Red: Very high number of persons Countries of destination Light blue: High number of persons Blue: Very high number of persons

According to The International Labor Organization, 4.5 million people are affected by sex trafficking in the world. [24] Sex trafficking victims are often caught by various prosecuted criminal activities such as illegal prostitution. Besides the law, problems like long-lasting problems such as disease (AIDS), malnutrition, psychological trauma, addiction to drugs, and social ostracism against this group of people should be addressed as well.

Sex bribery in the work place

Sex bribery is defined as a "form of quid pro quo harassment in a sexual relationship with the declared or implicit condition for acquiring/retaining employment or its benefit" [25] in an employment setting. A common example of sex bribery might come down to sexual activity or sexually related behavior accompanied by a reward such as a promotion opportunity or raise in payment. [26] In a workplace, attempted coercion of sexual activity may under the threat of two major types of punishment: negative work performance feedback/evaluation and withheld chances of promotions and raises. [27]

According to the 2016 Personal Safety Survey, [28] around 55% of women over 18 have experienced sexual harassment in their lifetime, including receiving indecent phone calls, texts, emails; indecent exposure; inappropriate comments about the person's body and sex life; having unwanted touching, grabbing and kissing; and exposing and distributing the person's text, pictures, and sexual videos, without the person's permission. It is a serious, widespread problem, and the person who has a sexual harassment experience can feel stressed, anxious and depressed, sometimes withdrawing socially, becoming less productive, and losing confidence and self-esteem. [29]

Social cases: sex as a female resource

There are several controversial cases in today's society that are relevant to sex economic theory.

Virginity Auction

A virginity auction is a controversial auction often published online. The person who tries to sell his/her virginity is often a young female, and the winning bidder will have the opportunity to be the first who have intercourse with the person. It is a controversial topic since many cases cannot be certified to be authentic. [30] [31] [32] The person who auctions their virginity mostly do so for quick financial help. In this case, under the theory of sex economics, women are trying to use sex as a resource to trade financial help from men.

Sugar baby

Sugar baby is another controversial case that exists in today's society. A sugar baby and sugar daddy/mommy are in a beneficial relationship, which means sugar babies provide time and sexual services to please their partners, and sugar daddies/mommas give financial support back to sugar babies including helping them in student loans and also provide luxury lifestyles such as expensive items they couldn't afford on their own. According to the registered number on dating websites, [33] sugar babies are mostly female and the number of sugar daddy is distinctly more than the number of sugar mommy. Therefore, it is another instance that corresponds to the theory of the sex economy.

Related Research Articles

Sex and the law deals with the regulation by law of human sexual activity. Sex laws vary from one place or jurisdiction to another, and have varied over time. Unlawful sexual acts are called sex crimes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual objectification</span> Disregarding personality or dignity; reducing a person to a commodity or sex object

Sexual objectification is the act of treating a person solely as an object of sexual desire. Objectification more broadly means treating a person as a commodity or an object without regard to their personality or dignity. Objectification is most commonly examined at the level of a society, but can also refer to the behavior of individuals and is a type of dehumanization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex work</span> Offer of sexual services in exchange for money or other types of exchange

Sex work is "the exchange of sexual services, performances, or products for material compensation. It includes activities of direct physical contact between buyers and sellers as well as indirect sexual stimulation". Sex work only refers to voluntary sexual transactions; thus, the term does not refer to human trafficking and other coerced or nonconsensual sexual transactions such as child prostitution. The transaction must take place between consenting adults of the legal age and mental capacity to consent and must take place without any methods of coercion, other than payment. The term emphasizes the labor and economic implications of this type of work. Furthermore, some prefer the use of the term because it grants more agency to the sellers of these services.

Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a feminist movement centering on the idea that sexual freedom is an essential component of women's freedom. They oppose legal or social efforts to control sexual activities between consenting adults, whether they are initiated by the government, other feminists, opponents of feminism, or any other institution. They embrace sexual minority groups, endorsing the value of coalition-building with marginalized groups. Sex-positive feminism is connected with the sex-positive movement. Sex-positive feminism brings together anti-censorship activists, LGBT activists, feminist scholars, producers of pornography and erotica, among others. Sex-positive feminists generally agree that prostitutes themselves should not be criminalized or penalized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Catharine A. MacKinnon</span> American feminist and legal activist

Catharine Alice MacKinnon is an American radical feminist legal scholar, activist, and author. She is the Elizabeth A. Long Professor of Law at the University of Michigan Law School, where she has been tenured since 1990, and the James Barr Ames Visiting Professor of Law at Harvard Law School. From 2008 to 2012, she was the special gender adviser to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opposition to pornography</span> Overview of opposing views to pornography

Reasons for opposition to pornography include religious objections and feminist concerns, as well as alleged harmful effects, such as pornography addiction. Pornography addiction is not a condition recognized by the DSM-5, or the ICD-11. Anti-pornography movements have allied disparate social activists in opposition to pornography, from social conservatives to harm reduction advocates. The definition of "pornography" varies between countries and movements, and many make distinctions between pornography, which they oppose, and erotica, which they consider acceptable. Sometimes opposition will deem certain forms of pornography more or less harmful, while others draw no such distinctions.

Rape pornography is a subgenre of pornography involving the description or depiction of rape. Such pornography either involves simulated rape, wherein sexually consenting adults feign rape, or it involves actual rape. Victims of actual rape may be coerced to feign consent such that the pornography produced deceptively appears as simulated rape or non-rape pornography. The depiction of rape in non-pornographic media is not considered rape pornography. Simulated scenes of rape and other forms of sexual violence have appeared in mainstream cinema, including rape and revenge films, almost since its advent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Casting couch</span> Soliciting sex for employment in entertainment

The casting couch is a euphemism for the practice of soliciting sexual favors from a job applicant in exchange for employment in the entertainment industry, primarily acting roles. The practice is illegal in the United States. Predominantly male casting directors and film producers use the casting couch to extract sex from aspiring actors in Hollywood, Bollywood, Broadway, and other segments of the industry. The term casting couch originally referred to physical couches in the casting office, but is now a metonym for the phenomenon as a whole. Depictions of casting couch sexual encounters have also become a genre of pornography.

The feminist sex wars, also known as the lesbian sex wars, sex wars or porn wars, are terms used to refer to collective debates amongst feminists regarding a number of issues broadly relating to sexuality and sexual activity. Differences of opinion on matters of sexuality deeply polarized the feminist movement, particularly leading feminist thinkers, in the late 1970s and early 1980s and continue to influence debate amongst feminists to this day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pornography</span> Portrayal of sexual subject matter

Pornography has been defined as sexual subject material "such as a picture, video, or text," that is primarily intended to assist sexual arousal in the consumer, and is created and commercialized with ″the consent of all persons involved.″ Indicated for the consumption by adults, pornography depictions have evolved from cave paintings, some forty millenia ago, to virtual reality presentations in modern-day. Pornography use is considered a widespread recreational activity among people inline with other digitally mediated activities such as use of social media or video games. A distinction is often made regarding adult content as whether to classify it as pornography or erotica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bisexual pornography</span> Pornography depicting bisexuality

Bisexual pornography is a genre of pornography that most typically depicts men and at least one woman who all perform sex acts on each other. A sex scene involving women and one man who all perform sex acts on each other is generally not identified or labeled as bisexual.

The National Center on Sexual Exploitation (NCOSE), previously known as Morality in Media and Operation Yorkville, is an American conservative anti-pornography organization. The group has also campaigned against sex trafficking, same-sex marriage, sex shops and sex toys, decriminalization of sex work, comprehensive sex education, and various works of literature or visual arts the organization has deemed obscene, profane or indecent. Its current president is Patrick A. Trueman. The organization describes its goal as "exposing the links between all forms of sexual exploitation".

The effects of pornography on individuals or their intimate relationships depend on the type of pornography used and differ from person to person. Consumption of pornographic material is associated with negative and positive impacts. It has been studied particularly for associations with addiction as well as effects on the brain over time. Some literature reviews suggest that pornographic images and films can be addictive, particularly when combined with masturbation, while others maintain that data remains inconclusive. Other research has looked at pornographic material's relation to acts of sexual violence, with varying results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex industry</span> Field of business

The sex industry consists of businesses that either directly or indirectly provide sex-related products and services or adult entertainment. The industry includes activities involving direct provision of sex-related services, such as prostitution, strip clubs, host and hostess clubs and sex-related pastimes, such as pornography, sex-oriented men's magazines, sex movies, sex toys and fetish or BDSM paraphernalia. Some sex possitions used in pornography are Doggy (style), 69, missionary, cowgirl and reverse cowgirl. Sex channels for television and pre-paid sex movies for video on demand, are part of the sex industry, as are adult movie theaters, sex shops, peep shows, and strip clubs. The sex industry employs millions of people worldwide, mainly women. These range from the sex worker, also called adult service provider (ASP) or adult sex provider, who provides sexual services, to a multitude of support personnel.

Feminist views on pornography range from total condemnation of the medium as an inherent form of violence against women to an embracing of some forms as a medium of feminist expression. This debate reflects larger concerns surrounding feminist views on sexuality, and is closely related to those on prostitution, BDSM, and other issues. Pornography has been one of the most divisive issues in feminism, particularly in Anglophone (English-speaking) countries. This division was exemplified in the feminist sex wars of the 1980s, which pitted anti-pornography activists against pro-pornography ones.

Sexuality in South Korea has been influenced by culture, religion, and westernization. Viewpoints in contemporary society can be viewed as a conflict between the traditional, conservative older generation and the more liberal and 'modern' generation. Due to this conflict, several issues in Korea, including sexual education, homosexuality, and sexual behavior are highly contested.

Feminist views on sexuality widely vary. Many feminists, particularly radical feminists, are highly critical of what they see as sexual objectification and sexual exploitation in the media and society. Radical feminists are often opposed to the sex industry, including opposition to prostitution and pornography. Other feminists define themselves as sex-positive feminists and believe that a wide variety of expressions of female sexuality can be empowering to women when they are freely chosen. Some feminists support efforts to reform the sex industry to become less sexist, such as the feminist pornography movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pornhub</span> Pornographic video sharing website owned by MindGeek

Pornhub is a Canadian-owned internet pornography website. It is one of several pornographic video-streaming websites owned by MindGeek. As of November 2022, Pornhub is the 13th-most-trafficked website in the world and the second-most-trafficked adult website after XVideos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ginger Banks</span> American pornographic actress

Ginger Banks is an American webcam model, pornographic actress and sex worker advocate.

GirlsDoPorn was an American pornographic website active from 2009 until 2020. In October and November 2019, six people involved were charged on counts of sex trafficking by force, fraud, and coercion. In December 2019, two more individuals were charged with obstruction of sex trafficking enforcement. The website was removed in January 2020 after 22 victims won the civil case against the company. According to the United States Department of Justice, the website and its sister website GirlsDoToys generated over $17 million in revenue. Videos were featured on GirlsDoPorn.com as well as pornography aggregate websites such as Pornhub, where the channel reached the top 20 most viewed, with approximately 680 million views.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Baumeister, Roy F.; Vohs, Kathleen D. (November 2004). "Sexual Economics: Sex as Female Resource for Social Exchange in Heterosexual Interactions". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 8 (4): 339–363. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_2. ISSN   1088-8683. PMID   15582858. S2CID   15191559.
  2. ↑ Roloff, Michael E. (1981). Interpersonal communication: the social exchange approach. Sage Publications. ISBN   0-8039-1604-3. OCLC   7307310.
  3. ↑ Plummer, Ken (2002-11-01). Telling Sexual Stories. doi:10.4324/9780203425268. ISBN   9780203425268.
  4. ↑ Delaney, Sheila (1975). "Sexual Economics, Chaucer's Wife of Bath, and The Book of Margery Kempe". Minnesota Review. 5 (1): 104–115. ISSN   2157-4189.
  5. ↑ Regnerus, Mark; Uecker, Jeremy (2010-12-10). Premarital Sex in America. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199743285.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-19-974328-5.
  6. ↑ Smuts, Barbara (March 1992). "Male aggression against women". Human Nature. 3 (1): 1–44. doi:10.1007/bf02692265. ISSN   1045-6767. PMID   24222394. S2CID   7627612.
  7. ↑ Baumeister, Roy F.; Vohs, Kathleen D. (2012-10-18). "Sexual Economics, Culture, Men, and Modern Sexual Trends". Society. 49 (6): 520–524. doi: 10.1007/s12115-012-9596-y . ISSN   0147-2011.
  8. ↑ Baumeister, Roy F.; Twenge, Jean M. (2003-04-15). "The Social Self". Handbook of Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0514. ISBN   0-471-26438-5.
  9. ↑ Pirog-Good, Maureen A.; Stets, Jan E. (January 1991). "Violence in Dating Relationships". Family Relations. 40 (1): 117. doi:10.2307/585669. ISSN   0197-6664. JSTOR   585669.
  10. ↑ Firestone, Robert W.; Firestone, Lisa A.; Catlett, Joyce (2006). Sex and love in intimate relationships. doi:10.1037/11260-000. ISBN   1-59147-286-5.
  11. ↑ "Gender Inequality and Discrimination: The Case of Iranian Women". Iran Human Rights Documentation Center. 2013-03-05. Retrieved 2019-05-20.
  12. ↑ "A brief discussion on Infidelity, Concubinage, Adultery and Bigamy". Philippine e-Legal Forum. 23 November 2009. Retrieved 2019-05-20.
  13. ↑ Hald, Gert Martin (2006-10-01). "Gender Differences in Pornography Consumption among Young Heterosexual Danish Adults". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 35 (5): 577–585. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9064-0. ISSN   1573-2800. PMID   17039402. S2CID   35560724.
  14. ↑ "The 2019 Year in Review – Pornhub Insights".
  15. ↑ "The 2019 Year in Review – Pornhub Insights".
  16. ↑ Griffiths, Josie (2017-02-21). "This is how much porn stars get paid". News.com.au — Australia's Leading News Site. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
  17. ↑ Escoffier, Jeffrey (2007-08-01). "Porn Star/Stripper/Escort: Economic and Sexual Dynamics in a Sex Work Career". Journal of Homosexuality. 53 (1–2): 173–200. doi:10.1300/J082v53n01_08. ISSN   0091-8369. PMID   18019074. S2CID   6367311.
  18. ↑ "PsycNET". psycnet.apa.org. Retrieved 2019-05-29.
  19. ↑ Kempadoo, Kamala; Sanghera, Jyoti; Pattanaik, Bandana (2015-12-03). Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work, and Human Rights. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-317-26451-4.
  20. ↑ Snow, Melissa; Vardaman, Samantha Healy; Smith, Linda (2009). "The National Report on Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: America's Prostituted Children".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ↑ "International Labour Organization". www.ilo.org. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
  22. ↑ "United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime". www.unodc.org. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
  23. ↑ Macy, Rebecca J.; Graham, Laurie M. (2012-04-01). "Identifying Domestic and International Sex-Trafficking Victims During Human Service Provision". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 13 (2): 59–76. doi:10.1177/1524838012440340. ISSN   1524-8380. PMID   22491971. S2CID   35568730.
  24. ↑ "Sex Trafficking | Human Trafficking for Sex – End Slavery Now". endslaverynow.org. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
  25. ↑ "Sexual Bribery". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
  26. ↑ "Abstracts Database – National Criminal Justice Reference Service". www.ncjrs.gov. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
  27. ↑ MacKinnon, Catharine A. (1979). Sexual Harassment of Working Women: A Case of Sex Discrimination. Yale University Press. ISBN   978-0-300-02299-5.
  28. ↑ Statistics, c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of (2017-11-08). "Main Features – Experience of Sexual Harassment". www.abs.gov.au. Retrieved 2019-05-23.
  29. ↑ Fitzgerald, Louise F; Shullman, Sandra L; Bailey, Nancy; Richards, Margaret; Swecker, Janice; Gold, Yael; Ormerod, Mimi; Weitzman, Lauren (1988-04-01). "The incidence and dimensions of sexual harassment in academia and the workplace". Journal of Vocational Behavior. 32 (2): 152–175. doi:10.1016/0001-8791(88)90012-7. ISSN   0001-8791.
  30. ↑ "18yo selling virginity for $100k". Chronicle. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
  31. ↑ Gordon, Claire (2010-02-09). "How Much Is Virginity Worth?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
  32. ↑ Carpenter, Laura (2005-11-01). Virginity Lost: An Intimate Portrait of First Sexual Experiences. NYU Press. ISBN   978-0-8147-7200-3.
  33. ↑ Charlton, James I. (1998-03-27). "Nothing About Us without Us". Nothing About Us Without Us Disability Oppression and Empowerment. Nothing About Us Without UsDisability Oppression and Empowerment. University of California Press. pp. 3–18. doi:10.1525/california/9780520207950.003.0001. ISBN   978-0-520-20795-0.
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