Australian Kriol, also known as Roper River Kriol, Fitzroy Valley Kriol, Northern Australian Creole or Aboriginal English,[4] is an English-basedcreole language that developed from a pidgin used initially in the region of Sydney and Newcastle in New South Wales, Australia, in the early days of European colonisation. Later, it was spoken by groups further west and north. The pidgin died out in most parts of the country, except in the Northern Territory, where the contact between European settlers, Chinese people and other Asian groups, and the Aboriginal Australians in the northern regions has maintained a vibrant use of the language, which is spoken by about 30,000 people. Despite its similarities to English in vocabulary, it has a distinct syntactic structure and grammar. It is a language in its own right and is distinct from Torres Strait Creole.
The first records of the progenitor to Kriol, a pidgin called Port Jackson Pidgin English, are found from the 1780s, with the pidgin being used for communication between the white settlers around Port Jackson and the local indigenous population.[5] European settlement in the Northern Territory was attempted over a period of about forty years. Settlement finally succeeded in 1870 with the founding of Darwin, and an influx of both English and Chinese speakers followed. To communicate between both groups and the local Aboriginal people, pidgins developed throughout the territory based on Port Jackson Pidgin English (PJPE). By 1900, PJPE had developed into Northern Territory Pidgin English (NTPE), which was widespread and well understood. Then, by 1908, NTPE would creolize into Australian Kriol.[6] This process of creolization entailed a massive increase in the lexicon as well as a complexification of the grammar of the language. Not all speakers of NTPE would switch over though as many after 1908 continued to speak NTPE.[7]
It creolized first in the Roper River Mission (Ngukurr), where cattle stations were established and a township developed.
During that period, relations between the native Australians and Europeans were strained and often violent. Aboriginal people fiercely defended their lands. However, the control of lands was eventually seized by the settlers when a cattle company acquired much of the area. The settlers became more determined to take full control of the land from the native people and carried out a campaign to do so.
Another factor in the development of Kriol was the establishment of a community of Anglican missionaries in the Roper River region in 1908. That brought together around 200 people from eight different aboriginal ethnic groups who spoke different native languages, although adult members of these groups were multilingual because of frequent meetings and ceremonies. Children from these groups were educated in English, necessitating use of a lingua franca. Children from these communities disseminated English features throughout their communities.
Although the relations between the missionaries and Aboriginal people were friendly, the missionaries were not responsible for the development of Kriol. In fact, they tried to introduce Standard English as the official language for the mission, which the Aboriginal children used in class and with the missionaries, but Kriol still flourished.
Kriol was not recognized as a language until the 1970s, as it was regarded as a dialect of English.
As a general rule, the grammar of Kriol is a simplified version of that found in English, meaning that it is analytic, with words generally having only one form and additional meaning derived not from changing words but from word order and added new words.[9]
Word order
Kriol uses an SVO word order exclusively. In Kriol the order of possessor and possessum varies, with it being evenly split between possessor possessum and possessum possessor. In Kriol word order is evenly split between verb object adverb and Adverb verb object.[9] Word order is used over inflections or subject object affixation or verbs to specify meaning.[10]
Pronouns
Kriol pronouns differentiate between different between first, second and third person, as well as between singular, plural, and dual plural inclusive and exclusive pronouns first person. The language also differentiates between subject, object, independent pronoun, and adnominal possessive. There are also reflexive and reciprocal pronouns.[11]
In Australian Kriol, many spatial words from English have been transformed into suffixes attached to verbs they interact with. The specific suffixes vary between dialects but remain mostly similar.[9]
Austral Kriol also has 5 dipthongs: /ei/, /ai/, /ou/, /oi/, and /au/.[11]
Orthography
The Kriol alphabet is based on the English alphabet, but varies not only in what letters and digraphs are used, but also in the rules for said letters and digraphs. Each phoneme in Kriol can only be made with one letter, unlike in English orthography, where several different spellings can be used to make the same sound. Kriol, unlike English, also uses a phonetic orthography in which words are spelled to match how they sound.[12]
Dialects of Kriol include Roper River Kriol (Roper River Pidgin), Bamyili Creole (from the Barunga area), Barkly Kriol, Fitzroy Valley Kriol, and Daly River Kriol.[2] Of the various dialects, those spoken in the Roper River and Barunga area are best documented.[13] Kriol also varies on an acrolectic spectrum of dialects that are more similar to Australian Aboriginal English and those that differ more from it. More divergent dialects, referred to as Heavy Kriol, have more words from Australian Aboriginal languages as well as more divergent word order and a more divergent phonology. Less divergent dialects, referred to as Light Kriol, have more English suffixes, a less divergent phonology, and more English words as opposed to Aboriginal ones.[14]
Kriol is very widely spoken in the Katherine area, but there are minor differences between the varieties of Kriol spoken in particular areas. Some speakers of Kriol prefer to refer to their language by their unique name. However, the varieties are quite similar.
The differences are not actually that large. Mari Rhydwen compares the distinction to the distinction between American and British English.
Roper River (Ngukurr) Kriol is also spoken in Barunga, and in the Daly River area, a mutually intelligible variety is spoken, but Daly River speakers do not consider themselves to be Kriol speakers. There is the question of whether the varieties should be understood as different forms of Kriol to strengthen the identities of the respective regions, or seen as Kriol and potentially have a better chance of funding for bilingual education programs.
Creolization
There is also a creole language based off a mix of Kriol and Gurindji called Gurndji Creole, which was formed by pervasive code switching between Kriol and Gurnidji by Gurnidji inhabitants of Victoria River District.[15] There is another Creole language called Light Warlpiri formed by rapid code-switching between Kriol, English, and Warlpiri by the inhabitants of the town of Lajamanu.[16]
The Kriol language, unlike many other aboriginal languages, is healthy, with most of its speakers under the age of 30. 99% of Kriol speakers are Australian Aboriginals, with only 0.8% being part of other groups. This shows that Kriol is an insider language only used within a community. Kriol speakers mainly use the language orally, with low literacy rates, though there are groups and initiatives working to increase the usage of Kriol literacy and usage in media by teaching Kriol literacy, creating new works in Kriol, and translating preexisting works into Kriol.[17][18]
There are various views and opinions on the Kriol language. Some deny that it is even its own language, simply referring to it as English or insisting those who speak Kriol are just speaking English poorly. Others view the language as a threat because it encroaches on other older aboriginal languages, while some take pride in it and try to support it. Government support for Kriol is limited, with there being only two bilingual language programs in Barunga and Ngukurr; though the one in Barunga has closed, they both successfully included Kriol as both a medium and an object of study.[18][17][19]
Media
Located at the Museum of the Bible, a copy of the Australian Kriol Bible (Holi Baibul) is on display.
Many famous pieces of media such Shakespeare and Waltzing Matilda have been translated into Kriol, and many books have been published in Kriol. ABC and several other organizations currently make news in Kriol. Online there are several videos and texts available in Kriol, as well as resources for learning the language. There is also currently an Australian Kriol Wikipedia currently on the Wikimedia Incubator.
Bible translation
On 5 May 2007, the first complete edition of the Bible in the Kriol language was launched at Katherine in the Northern Territory. Translation took over 29 years. It was undertaken by a team of native Kriol speakers led by Rev. Canon Gumbuli Wurrumara and specialists from the Society for Australian Indigenous Languages.
The Kriol Bible is the first complete edition of the Bible in any Indigenous Australian language. The publication was a joint venture of The Bible Society, Lutheran Bible Translators, The Church Missionary Society, the Anglican church, Wycliffe Bible Translators, and the Australian Society of Indigenous Languages.[20]
Orait, longtaim wen God bin stat meigimbat ebrijing, nomo enijing bin jidan. Imbin jis eniwei, nomo garram enijing. Oni strongbala woda bin goran goran ebriwei, en imbin brabli dakbala, en det Spirit blanga God bin mubabat ontop langa det woda.
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.
Wen ola bigini dun Kriol la skul, im album alabat jidan strongbala. La run 33 alabat bin dum profail, bla dalim wi "hu yu?". La Rum 12, alabat bin drodrobat alabat femili en raidimdan wani dei gulum alabat gada Kriol
Our Kriol programs help students feel strong about themselves. In Room 33, students have been completing Kriol profiles about themselves while in Room 12, students did some great family portraits with all the labels in Kriol.
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Port Jackson Pidgin English or New South Wales Pidgin English was an English-based pidgin that originated in the region of Sydney and Newcastle in New South Wales in the early days of colonisation. Stockmen carried it west and north as they expanded across Australia. It subsequently died out in most of the country, but was creolised forming Australian Kriol in the Northern Territory at the Roper River Mission in Ngukurr, where missionaries provided a safe place for Indigenous Australians from the surrounding areas to escape deprivation at the hands of European settlers. As the Aboriginal Australians who came to seek refuge at the Roper River Mission spoke different languages, there grew a need for a shared communication system to develop, and it was this that created the conditions for Port Jackson Pidgin English to become fleshed out into a full language, Kriol, based on the English language and the eight different Australian language groups spoken by those at the mission.
Ngukurr, formerly Roper River Mission (1908−1968), is a remote Aboriginal community on the banks of the Roper River in southern Arnhem Land, Northern Territory.
The Yukul, also written Jukul, were an indigenous Australian people of the Northern Territory.
Northern Territory Pidgin English was an English-based pidgin language spoken in Northern Australia by Aboriginal Australians.
1 2 Sandefur, John R. (1984). Work Papers of Sil-Aab. Summer Institute of Linguistics, Australian Aborigines Branch. pp.69, 74–75. ISBN0-86892-297-8.
↑ Schultze-Berndt, Eva; Angelo, Denise (2013), "Kriol structure dataset", Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online, Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, retrieved 17 August 2024
↑ Nicholls, Sophie (2009). Referring Expressions and Referential Practice in Roper Kriol (Northern Territory, Australia). pp.22–23.
↑ "UQ eSpace". espace.library.uq.edu.au. Retrieved 17 August 2024.
Harris, John (1993) "Losing and gaining a language: the story of Kriol in the Northern Territory" in Walsh, M and Yallop, C (eds), Language and Culture in Aboriginal Australia, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra.
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