Ciguatera fish poisoning

Last updated
Ciguatera fish poisoning
Other namesCiguatera, ciguatera food poisoning
Ciguatoxin.svg
Chemical structure of ciguatoxin
Specialty Toxicology   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Symptoms Diarrhea, vomiting, numbness, itchiness, sensitivity to hot and cold, dizziness, weakness [1] [2]
Usual onset30 min to 2 days [3]
DurationFew weeks to months [3]
Causespolyether toxins within certain reef fish [2]
Risk factors Barracuda, grouper, moray eel, amberjack, sea bass, sturgeon fish [2]
Diagnostic method Based on symptoms and recently eating fish [1]
Differential diagnosis Paralytic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, scombroid food poisoning, pufferfish poisoning [1]
Treatment Mannitol, gabapentin, amitriptyline [1] [2]
Prognosis Risk of death ~ 0.1% [2]
Frequencyc. 50,000 per year [2]

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), also known as ciguatera, is a foodborne illness caused by eating reef fish contaminated with ciguatoxins. [4] [2] Such individual fish are said to be ciguatoxic. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, numbness, itchiness, sensitivity to hot and cold, dizziness, and weakness. [1] [2] The onset of symptoms varies with the amount of toxin eaten. If a lot of toxins are consumed symptoms may appear within half an hour. If a low amount of toxins are consumed symptoms may take a few days to appear. [3] Diarrhea may last up to four days. [1] Symptoms may last a few weeks to a few months. [3] Heart problems such as slow heart rate and low blood pressure may occur. [2]

Contents

The specific toxins involved are ciguatoxin and maitotoxin. [2] They are originally made by a small marine organism, Gambierdiscus toxicus , that grows on and around coral reefs in tropical and subtropical waters. [2] These are eaten by herbivorous fish which in turn are eaten by larger carnivorous fish. [2] The toxins become more concentrated as they move up the food chain. [3] The fish most often implicated include barracuda, grouper, moray eel, amberjack, sea bass, and sturgeon. [2] Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms together with having recently eaten fish. [1] If a number of those who eat the same fish develop symptoms the diagnosis becomes more likely. [1] If some of the fish they had previously eaten is available this can also be tested to confirm the diagnosis. [1]

Preventive efforts include not eating reef fish, not eating high-risk fish such as barracuda, and not eating fish liver, roe, or fish heads. [2] Ciguatoxin has no taste or smell, and cannot be destroyed by conventional cooking. [2] There is no specific treatment for ciguatera fish poisoning once it occurs. [2] Mannitol may be considered, but the evidence supporting its use is not very strong. [1] Gabapentin or amitriptyline may be used to treat some of the symptoms. [2]

In 2017, the United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimated that around 50,000 cases occur globally each year. [2] Other estimates suggest up to 500,000 cases per year. [1] The risk of death from poisoning is less than 1 in 1,000 according to the CDC. [2] It is the most frequent seafood poisoning. [3] It occurs most commonly in the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, and the Caribbean Sea between the latitudes of 35°N and 35°S. [2] The risk of the condition appears to be increasing due to coral reef deterioration and increasing trade in seafood. [2] Descriptions of the condition date back to at least 1511. [3] The current name, introduced in 1787, is of Cuban Spanish origin and originally referred to the gastropod Cittarium pica . [3]

Signs and symptoms

Hallmark symptoms of ciguatera in humans include gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and neurological effects. [5] [6] Gastrointestinal symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, usually followed by neurological symptoms such as headaches, muscle aches, paresthesia, numbness of extremities, mouth and lips, reversal of hot and cold sensation, [7] [8] ataxia, vertigo, and hallucinations. [9] [6] Severe cases of ciguatera can also result in cold allodynia, which is a burning sensation on contact with cold. [5] Neurological symptoms can persist and ciguatera poisoning is occasionally misdiagnosed as multiple sclerosis. [10] Cardiovascular symptoms include bradycardia, tachycardia, hypotension, hypertension, orthostatic tachycardia, exercise intolerance, and rhythm disorders. [11] Death from the condition can occur, but is very rare. [12]

Dyspareunia and other ciguatera symptoms have developed in otherwise healthy males and females following sexual intercourse with partners suffering ciguatera poisoning, signifying that the toxin may be sexually transmitted. [13] Diarrhea and facial rashes have been reported in breastfed infants of poisoned mothers, suggesting that ciguatera toxins migrate into breast milk. [14]

The symptoms can last from weeks to years, and in extreme cases as long as 20 years, often leading to long-term disability. [15] Most people do recover slowly over time. [16]

Cause

Gambierdiscus toxicus is the primary dinoflagellate responsible for the production of a number of similar polyether toxins, including ciguatoxin, maitotoxin and possibly palytoxin. [17] [18] Other dinoflagellates that may cause ciguatera include Prorocentrum spp., Ostreopsis spp., Coolia spp., Thecadinium spp. and Amphidinium spp. [19]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms together with having recently eaten fish. [1] If a number of those who eat the same fish have symptoms the diagnosis becomes more likely. [1] If some of the fish they had previously eaten is available this can also be tested to confirm the diagnosis. [1] Other potential causes such as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), scombrotoxin fish poisoning, and pufferfish poisoning should be excluded. [1]

The reversal of hot and cold sensations is an occasional symptom of CFP that may help differentiate it from norovirus. [20]

Treatment

There is no known effective treatment or antidote for ciguatera poisoning. The mainstay of treatment is supportive care. There is some evidence that calcium channel blockers like nifedipine and verapamil are effective in treating some of the symptoms that remain after the initial sickness passes, such as poor circulation and shooting pains through the chest. These symptoms are due to vasoconstriction caused by maitotoxin. [6] [21] [22] [23] Ciguatoxin lowers the threshold for opening voltage-gated sodium channels in synapses of the nervous system. Opening a sodium channel causes depolarization, which could sequentially cause paralysis, heart contraction, and changing the senses of hot and cold. Some medications such as amitriptyline may reduce some symptoms, such as fatigue and paresthesia, [24] although benefit does not occur in every case. [25]

Mannitol

Mannitol was once used for poisoning after one study reported symptom reversal. [6] [26] Follow-up studies in animals [27] and case reports in humans [28] also found benefit from mannitol. However, a randomized, double-blind clinical trial found no difference between mannitol and normal saline. [29] Despite this its use may still be considered. [1]

Epidemiology

The current estimated global incidence annually is 20,000 to 50,000 people, though a large number of cases are believed to go unreported. [30]

Due to the limited habitats of ciguatoxin-producing microorganisms, ciguatera is common only in subtropical and tropical waters, particularly the Pacific and Caribbean, and usually is associated with fish caught in tropical reef waters. [5] Exportation of reef fish, as well as tourism, often account for cases that develop in other regions. [30]

Ciguatoxin is found in over 400 species of reef fish. Avoiding consumption of all reef fish is the only sure way to avoid exposure. [31] Imported fish served in restaurants may contain the toxin and produce illness which often goes unexplained by physicians unfamiliar with the symptoms of a tropical toxin. [31] [32] Ciguatoxin can also occur in farm-raised salmon. [33] Furthermore, species substitution, labeling a reef fish as a non-reef fish at restaurants and retail, can complicate efforts by consumers to avoid ciguatera.[ citation needed ]

20th and 21st centuries

History

Ciguatera was first described by one of the surgeon's mates, William Anderson, on the crew of HMS Resolution in 1774. [43]

Researchers suggest that ciguatera outbreaks caused by warm climatic conditions in part propelled the migratory voyages of Polynesians between 1000 and 1400 CE. [44] [45]

Folk tales

In Northern Australia, where ciguatera is a common problem, two different folk science methods are widely believed to detect whether fish harbor significant ciguatoxin. The first method is that flies are supposed not to land on contaminated fish. The second is that cats will either refuse to eat or vomit/display symptoms after eating contaminated fish.

On Grand Cayman and other islands the locals will test barracuda by placing a piece of the fish on the ground and allowing ants to crawl on it. If the ants do not avoid the flesh and will eat it, then the fish is deemed safe.[ citation needed ]

In Dominican Republic, another common belief is that during months whose names do not include the letter "R" (May through August), it is not recommended to eat certain kinds of fish, because they are more likely to be infected by the ciguatera toxin.

The validity of many of these tests has been scientifically rejected. [46]

Folk remedies

Leaves of Heliotropium foertherianum (Boraginaceae) – also known as octopus bush – are used in many Pacific islands as a traditional medicine to treat ciguatera fish poisoning. Senescent octopus bush leaves contain rosmarinic acid and derivatives, which are known for their antiviral, antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. [47] Rosmarinic acid may remove the ciguatoxins from their sites of action, as well as being an anti-inflammatory.

An account of ciguatera poisoning from a linguistics researcher living on Malakula island, Vanuatu, indicates the local treatment: "We had to go with what local people told us: avoid salt and any seafood. Eat sugary foods. And they gave us a tea made from the roots of ferns growing on tree trunks. I don't know if any of that helped, but after a few weeks, the symptoms faded away". [48]

Various Caribbean folk and ritualistic treatments originated in Cuba and nearby islands. The most common old-time remedy involves bed rest subsequent to a guanabana juice enema.[ citation needed ] In Puerto Rico, natives drink a tea made from mangrove buttons, purportedly high in B vitamins, to flush the toxic symptoms from the system.[ citation needed ] There has never been a funded study of these treatments. Other folk treatments range from directly porting and bleeding the gastrointestinal tract to "cleansing" the diseased with a dove during a Santería ritual.[ citation needed ]

See also

Footnotes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Friedman, MA; Fernandez, M; Backer, LC; Dickey, RW; Bernstein, J; Schrank, K; Kibler, S; Stephan, W; Gribble, MO; Bienfang, P; Bowen, RE; Degrasse, S; Flores Quintana, HA; Loeffler, CR; Weisman, R; Blythe, D; Berdalet, E; Ayyar, R; Clarkson-Townsend, D; Swajian, K; Benner, R; Brewer, T; Fleming, LE (14 March 2017). "An Updated Review of Ciguatera Fish Poisoning: Clinical, Epidemiological, Environmental, and Public Health Management". Marine Drugs. 15 (3): 72. doi: 10.3390/md15030072 . PMC   5367029 . PMID   28335428.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 "Food Poisoning from Marine Toxins - Chapter 2 - 2018 Yellow Book". CDC. 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2018.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP)". Marine biotoxins. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2004. p. Chapter 7. ISBN   978-92-5-105129-0.
  4. ↑ Robertson, Alison; Garcia, Ana C.; Quintana, Harold A. Flores; Smith, Tyler B.; Ii, Bernard F. Castillo; Reale-Munroe, Kynoch; Gulli, Joseph A.; Olsen, David A.; Hooe-Rollman, Jennifer I.; Jester, Edward L. E.; Klimek, Brian J.; Plakas, Steven M. (January 2014). "Invasive Lionfish (Pterois volitans): A Potential Human Health Threat for Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in Tropical Waters". Marine Drugs. 12 (1): 88–97. doi: 10.3390/md12010088 . ISSN   1660-3397. PMC   3917262 . PMID   24378919.
  5. 1 2 3 Isbister G, Kiernan M (2005). "Neurotoxic marine poisoning". The Lancet Neurology. 4 (4): 219–28. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70041-7. PMID   15778101. S2CID   34159698.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Clark RF, Williams SR, Nordt SP, Manoguerra AS (1999). "A review of selected seafood poisonings". Undersea Hyperb Med. 26 (3): 175–84. PMID   10485519. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2008-08-12.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  7. ↑ Patel, Ryan; Brice, Nicola L.; Lewis, Richard J.; Dickenson, Anthony H. (December 2015). "Ionic mechanisms of spinal neuronal cold hypersensitivity in ciguatera". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 42 (11): 3004–3011. doi:10.1111/ejn.13098. ISSN   0953-816X. PMC   4744673 . PMID   26454262.
  8. ↑ Vetter, Irina; Touska, Filip; Hess, Andreas; Hinsbey, Rachel; Sattler, Simon; Lampert, Angelika; Sergejeva, Marina; Sharov, Anastasia; Collins, Lindon S (2012-10-03). "Ciguatoxins activate specific cold pain pathways to elicit burning pain from cooling". The EMBO Journal. 31 (19): 3795–3808. doi:10.1038/emboj.2012.207. ISSN   0261-4189. PMC   3463840 . PMID   22850668.
  9. ↑ Swift A, Swift T (1993). "Ciguatera". J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 31 (1): 1–29. doi:10.3109/15563659309000371. PMID   8433404. S2CID   222017205.
  10. ↑ Ting J, Brown A (2001). "Ciguatera poisoning: a global issue with common management problems" (PDF). Eur. J. Emerg. Med. 8 (4): 295–300. doi:10.1097/00063110-200112000-00009. PMID   11785597. S2CID   17935300.
  11. ↑ Hokama, Y. (1988-01-01). "Ciguatera fish poisoning". Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis. 2 (1): 44–50. doi:10.1002/jcla.1860020110. ISSN   1098-2825. S2CID   72302620.
  12. 1 2 "Newlywed bride dies 10 days after wedding from heart attack believed to have been caused by 'contaminated fish'" . The Daily Telegraph. 13 October 2016. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  13. ↑ Lange W, Lipkin K, Yang G (1989). "Can ciguatera be a sexually transmitted disease?". J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 27 (3): 193–7. doi:10.3109/15563658909038583. PMID   2810444.
  14. ↑ Blythe D, de Sylva D (1990). "Mother's milk turns toxic following fish feast". JAMA. 264 (16): 2074. doi:10.1001/jama.264.16.2074b. PMID   2214071.
  15. ↑ Gillespie N, Lewis R, Pearn J, Bourke A, Holmes M, Bourke J, Shields W (1986). "Ciguatera in Australia. Occurrence, clinical features, pathophysiology and management". Med. J. Aust. 145 (11–12): 584–90. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1986.tb139504.x. PMID   2432386.
  16. ↑ Pearn J (2001). "Neurology of ciguatera". J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 70 (1): 4–8. doi:10.1136/jnnp.70.1.4. PMC   1763481 . PMID   11118239.
  17. ↑ Faust, MA and Gulledge RA. Identifying Harmful Marine Dynoflagellates. Smithsonian Institution, Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. Volume 42:1-144. 2002.
  18. ↑ National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms, Ciguatera Fish Poisoning. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
  19. ↑ National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms, Ciguatera Fish Poisoning: Causative organisms:. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
  20. ↑ Lehane, Leigh; Lewis, Richard J (November 2000). "Ciguatera: recent advances but the risk remains". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 61 (2–3): 91–125. doi:10.1016/S0168-1605(00)00382-2. PMID   11078162.
  21. ↑ Attaway D, Zaborsky O (1993). Marine Biotechnology. p. 8.
  22. ↑ Fleming L. "Ciguatera Fish Poisoning". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
  23. ↑ Schlossberg D (1999). Infections of leisure. Springer. p. 13. ISBN   978-3-540-94069-2.
  24. ↑ Davis R, Villar L (1986). "Symptomatic improvement with amitriptyline in ciguatera fish poisoning". N. Engl. J. Med. 315 (1): 65. doi:10.1056/NEJM198607033150115. PMID   3713788.
  25. ↑ Hampton M, Hampton A (1989). "Ciguatera fish poisoning". J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 20 (3): 510–1. doi:10.1016/S0190-9622(89)80094-5. PMID   2918120.
  26. ↑ Palafox N, Jain L, Pinano A, Gulick T, Williams R, Schatz I (1988). "Successful treatment of ciguatera fish poisoning with intravenous mannitol". JAMA. 259 (18): 2740–2. doi:10.1001/jama.259.18.2740. PMID   3128666.
  27. ↑ Mattei C, Molgó J, Marquais M, Vernoux J, Benoit E (1999). "Hyperosmolar D-mannitol reverses the increased membrane excitability and the nodal swelling caused by Caribbean ciguatoxin-1 in single frog myelinated axons". Brain Res. 847 (1): 50–8. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(99)02032-6. PMID   10564735. S2CID   11662638.
  28. ↑ Williamson J (1990). "Ciguatera and mannitol: a successful treatment". Med. J. Aust. 153 (5): 306–7. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1990.tb136931.x. PMID   2118229. S2CID   204082685.
  29. ↑ Schnorf H, Taurarii M, Cundy T (2002). "Ciguatera fish poisoning: a double-blind randomized trial of mannitol therapy". Neurology. 58 (6): 873–80. doi:10.1212/WNL.58.6.873. PMID   11914401. S2CID   1428110.
  30. 1 2 Marcus, Erin N., Ciguatera fish poisoning , retrieved 6 April 2015
  31. 1 2 Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Temple WA, Beasley DM (2010). "Ciguatera poisoning: an increasing occurrence in New Zealand". N. Z. Med. J. 123 (1308): 100–102. PMID   20173810.
  32. ↑ Geller R, Olson K, Senécal P (1991). "Ciguatera fish poisoning in San Francisco, California, caused by imported barracuda". West. J. Med. 155 (6): 639–642. PMC   1003121 . PMID   1812639.
  33. ↑ DiNubile M, Hokama Y (1995). "The ciguatera poisoning syndrome from farm-raised salmon". Annals of Internal Medicine. 122 (2): 113–114. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-122-2-199501150-00006. PMID   7992985. S2CID   6474969.
  34. ↑ Leader, Zachary, The Life of Saul Bellow: Love and Strife 1965-2005, p. 528.
  35. ↑ "Bizarre fish poisoning sparks alarm". NBC News. 2019-05-01. Archived from the original on September 20, 2013. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
  36. ↑ "FDA Advises Seafood Processors About Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Near the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary" (Press release). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2008-02-05. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
  37. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2013). "Ciguatera fish poisoning - New York City, 2010-2011". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 62 (4): 61–5. PMC   4604878 . PMID   23364271.
  38. ↑ Cliffe-Jones, Mike Jules (April 17, 2012). "Isolated Cases of Ciguatera Poisoning in Lanzarote". Information Lanzarote. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
  39. ↑ "Ciguatera poisoning from Spanish Mackerel caught off Scotts Head". ABC News. 2014-03-04. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
  40. ↑ "Balsa 85 ID'd as ship in Saint John whose crew was hit by food poisoning". CBC New Brunswick. CBC. CBC. 13 April 2015. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
  41. ↑ "Seafarers told no fishing!". The Sea. No. 236. Mission to Seafarers Limited. Jul–Aug 2015.
  42. ↑ "Love your fish? Then know about seafood poisoning too". Times of India. 4 October 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  43. ↑ Sanders, Lisa (April 5, 2010). "Fish Tale". The New York Times . Retrieved 2010-04-10. (The New York Times incorrectly gives William Anderson's first name as John.)
  44. ↑ Rongo, Teina; Bush, Mark; Van Woesik, Robert (2009). "Did ciguatera prompt the late Holocene Polynesian voyages of discovery?". Journal of Biogeography. 36 (8): 1423–32. Bibcode:2009JBiog..36.1423R. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02139.x .
  45. ↑ "Did fish poisoning drive Polynesian colonization of the Pacific?". news.mongabay.com. 7 July 2009. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
  46. ↑ Park, D. L. (1994). "Evolution of Methods for Assessing Ciguatera Toxins in Fish". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. Vol. 136. pp. 1–20. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-2656-7_1. ISBN   978-1-4612-7623-4. PMID   8029489.
  47. ↑ Rossi, Fanny; Jullian, Valérie; Pawlowiez, Ralph; Kumar-Roiné, Shilpa; Haddad, Mohamed; Darius, H. Taiana; Gaertner-Mazouni, Nabila; Chinain, Mireille; Laurent, Dominique (2012). "Protective effect of Heliotropium foertherianum (Boraginaceae) folk remedy and its active compound, rosmarinic acid, against a Pacific ciguatoxin". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 143 (1): 33–40. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.05.045. PMID   22706150.
  48. ↑ Dimock, Laura (June 2010). "Rescue mission for fading tongue". New Zealand Education Review. Archived from the original on 2014-01-04. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seafood</span> Food from the sea

Seafood is the culinary name for food that comes from any form of sea life, prominently including fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of molluscs.

Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance faster than it can be lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion. Thus, the longer the biological half-life of a toxic substance, the greater the risk of chronic poisoning, even if environmental levels of the toxin are not very high. Bioaccumulation, for example in fish, can be predicted by models. Hypothesis for molecular size cutoff criteria for use as bioaccumulation potential indicators are not supported by data. Biotransformation can strongly modify bioaccumulation of chemicals in an organism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mahi-mahi</span> Species of fish

The mahi-mahi or common dolphinfish is a surface-dwelling ray-finned fish found in off-shore temperate, tropical, and subtropical waters worldwide. It is also widely called dorado and dolphin. It is one of two members of the family Coryphaenidae, the other being the pompano dolphinfish. These fish are most commonly found in the waters around the Gulf of Mexico, Costa Rica, Hawaii and the Indian Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moray eel</span> Family of fishes

Moray eels, or Muraenidae, are a family of eels whose members are found worldwide. There are approximately 200 species in 15 genera which are almost exclusively marine, but several species are regularly seen in brackish water, and a few are found in fresh water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scombroid food poisoning</span> Foodborne illness that typically results from eating spoiled fish

Scombroid food poisoning, also known as simply scombroid, is a foodborne illness that typically results from eating spoiled fish. Symptoms may include flushed skin, sweating, headache, itchiness, blurred vision, abdominal cramps and diarrhea. Onset of symptoms is typically 10 to 60 minutes after eating and can last for up to two days. Rarely, breathing problems, difficulty swallowing, redness of the mouth, or an irregular heartbeat may occur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palytoxin</span> Chemical compound

Palytoxin, PTX or PLTX is an intense vasoconstrictor, and is considered to be one of the most poisonous non-protein substances known, second only to maitotoxin in terms of toxicity in mice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish as food</span> Fish eaten by humans

Many species of fish are caught by humans and consumed as food in virtually all regions around the world. Fish has been an important dietary source of protein and other nutrients.

Ciguatoxins are a class of toxic polycyclic polyethers found in fish that cause ciguatera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giant moray</span> Species of fish

The giant moray is a species of moray eel and a species of marine fish in the family Muraenidae. In terms of body mass, it is the largest moray eel; however, the slender giant moray is the largest in terms of body length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning</span> Syndrome of shellfish poisoning

Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) is caused by the consumption of brevetoxins, which are marine toxins produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. These toxins can produce a series of gastrointestinal and neurological effects. Outbreaks of NSP commonly take place following harmful algal bloom (HAB) events, commonly referred to as "Florida red tide". Algal blooms are a naturally-occurring phenomenon, however their frequency has been increasing in recent decades at least in-part due to human activities, climate changes, and the eutrophication of marine waters. HABs have been occurring for all of documented history, evidenced by the Native Americans' understanding of the dangers of shellfish consumption during periods of marine bioluminescence. Blooms have been noted to occur as far north as North Carolina and are commonly seen alongside the widespread death of fish and sea birds. In addition to the effects on human health, the economic impact of HAB-associated shellfish toxin outbreaks can have significant economic implications as well due to not only the associated healthcare costs, but the adverse impact on the commercial shellfish industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef fish</span> Fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs

Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hallucinogenic fish</span> Fish which can produce hallucinogenic effects when eaten

Several species of fish are claimed to produce hallucinogenic effects when consumed, a condition known as ichthyoallyeinotoxism. For example, Sarpa salpa, a species of sea bream referred to as the "dream-fish", is commonly claimed to be hallucinogenic. These widely distributed coastal fish are normally found in the Mediterranean and around the Iberian Peninsula, west to the Azores and along the west and south coasts of Africa. Occasionally they are found in British or more northerly waters. They may induce hallucinogenic effects similar to LSD if eaten. However, based on the reports of exposure they are more likely to resemble hallucinogenic effects of deliriants than the effects of serotonergic psychedelics such as LSD. In 2006, two men who apparently ate the fish experienced hallucinations lasting for several days. The likelihood of hallucinations depends on the season. Sarpa salpa is known as "the fish that makes dreams" in Arabic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific barracuda</span> Species of fish

Sphyraena argentea is a predatory species of marine barracuda fish of the family Sphyraenidae. They are found in the northeast Pacific Ocean, from Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur north to Washington State. However, they are not common north of Point Conception in Santa Barbara County, California, usually preferring warmer waters. They can reach a length of about 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) and a weight of about 6.8 kilograms (15 lb). This species of barracuda is a very popular sport fish in Southern California.

Seafood species can be mislabelled in misleading ways. This article examines the history and types of mislabelling, and looks at the current state of the law in different locations.

Dinotoxins are a group of toxins which are produced by flagellate, aquatic, unicellular protists called dinoflagellates. Dinotoxin was coined by Hardy and Wallace in 2012 as a general term for the variety of toxins produced by dinoflagellates. Dinoflagellates are an enormous group of marine life, with much diversity. With great diversity comes many different toxins, however, there are a few toxins that multiple species have in common.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poisonous fish</span> Fish containing indigestible toxins

Poisonous fish are fish that are poisonous to eat. They contain toxins which are not destroyed by the digestive systems of animals that eat the fish. Venomous fish also contain toxins, but do not necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the digestive system often destroys their venom.

<i>Gambierdiscus</i> Genus of protists

Gambierdiscus is a genus of marine dinoflagellates that produce ciguatoxins, a type of toxin that causes the foodborne illness known as ciguatera. They are usually epiphytic on macroalgae growing on coral reefs.

Gambierol is a marine polycyclic ether toxin which is produced by the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. Gambierol is collected from the sea at the Rangiroa Peninsula in French Polynesia. The toxins are accumulated in fish through the food chain and can therefore cause human intoxication. The symptoms of the toxicity resemble those of ciguatoxins, which are extremely potent neurotoxins that bind to voltage-sensitive sodium channels and alter their function. These ciguatoxins cause ciguatera fish poisoning. Because of the resemblance, there is a possibility that gambierol is also responsible for ciguatera fish poisoning. Because the natural source of gambierol is limited, biological studies are hampered. Therefore, chemical synthesis is required.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scaritoxin</span> Toxin

Scaritoxin, a potent toxic substance, is a ciguatoxin with molecular formula C60H84O16. Scaritoxin is also referred to as ciguaotoxin 4A, CTX4A. Like other ciguatoxins, CTX4A is produced by dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus and isolated from poisonous fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ciguatoxin 1</span> Toxic compound found in some fish

Ciguatoxin 1 or CTX-1 is a toxic chemical compound, the most common and potent type in the group of ciguatoxins. It is a large molecule consisting of polycyclic polyethers that can be found in certain types of fish in the Pacific Ocean. The compound is produced by Dinoflagellates Gambierdiscus toxicus and is passed on through the food chain by fish. The compound has no effect in fish but is toxic to humans. 

References

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.