Variation in Australian English

Last updated

Australian English is relatively homogeneous when compared with British and American English. The major varieties of Australian English are sociocultural rather than regional. They are divided into 3 main categories: general, broad and cultivated.

Contents

There are a number of Australian English-based creole languages. Differing significantly from English, these are not considered dialects of English; rather, they are considered separate languages. Notable examples are Torres Strait Creole, spoken on the Torres Strait Islands, Northern Cape York and South-Western Coastal Papua; the Norfuk language, spoken by some inhabitants of Norfolk Island, and Australian Kriol, which developed in and around the Sydney region in the days of early settlement, and now exists only in rural areas of the Northern Territory.

Sociocultural variation

Broad, general and cultivated Australian

Variation in Australian closing diphthongs [1]
PhonemeLexical setPhonetic realization
CultivatedGeneralBroad
/iː/FLEECE[ɪi][ɪ̈i][əːɪ]
/ʉː/GOOSE[ʊu][ɪ̈ɯ,ʊʉ][əːʉ]
/æɪ/FACE[ɛɪ][æ̠ɪ][æ̠ːɪ,a̠ːɪ]
/əʉ/GOAT[ö̞ʊ][æ̠ʉ][æ̠ːʉ,a̠ːʉ]
/ɑɪ/PRICE[a̠e][ɒe][ɒːe]
/æɔ/MOUTH[a̠ʊ][æo][ɛːo,ɛ̃ːɤ]

Three main varieties of Australian English are spoken according to linguists: broad, general and cultivated. [2] They are part of a continuum, reflecting variations in accent. They can, but do not always, reflect the social class, education and urban or rural background of the speaker. [3]

Broad Australian English is recognisable and familiar to English speakers around the world. It is prevalent nationwide but is especially common in rural areas. Examples of people with this accent include Steve Irwin, Paul Hogan and former prime ministers Julia Gillard, [4] [5] Bob Hawke and John Howard. [6] In Australia, this dialect is sometimes called Strine /ˈstɹɑɪn/ (or "Strayan" /ˈstɹæɪən/, a shortening of the word Australian), and a speaker of the dialect may be referred to as an Ocker. [7] Tests indicated[ citation needed ] that the Broad speakers demonstrated a greater tendency for syllable assimilation and consonant elision, were more likely to use weak consonants or restricted intonation (narrow pitch range), were more likely to speak slowly (drawl), and further, showed a greater tendency to exhibit pervasive nasality. Diphthongs are usually pronounced longer as well. [8] Along the East Coast, there is an approximate correlation between latitude and accent, being the further north one is, the more nasal/broad the accent. Nasality is already evident at the NSW/QLD border.

General Australian English is the most common of Australian accents. [9] [10] It is especially prominent in urban Australia and is used as a standard language for Australian films, television programs and advertising. It is used by Hugh Jackman, Rose Byrne, Rebel Wilson, Chris Hemsworth and Eric Bana.

Cultivated Australian English has in the past been perceived as indicating high social class or education. Additionally, a study in 1989 reported that Cultivated Australian English speakers were being rated higher than Broad Australian English speakers in intelligence, competence, reliability, honesty, and status. [11] In comparison, Broad Australian English speakers are rated higher in terms of humorousness and talkativity, similar to what was found in a study in 1975 comparing regional British accents to RP (Received Pronunciation). [11] Cultivated Australian English also has some similarities to Received Pronunciation and the Transatlantic accent as well. In recent generations, it has fallen sharply in usage. [9] [10] However, the cultivated usages of [ɛɪ] in "face" and [aɪ] "price" have been integrated into the speech of some of the speakers of General Australian. [ɪi] for FLEECE is also within the General Australian range, as the ongliding of /iː/ is variable. Speakers with a Cultivated Australian accent include Cate Blanchett, Lisa Gerrard, Geoffrey Rush and former prime minister Malcolm Fraser.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander English

Australian Aboriginal English refers to a dialect of Australian English used by a large proportion of Indigenous Australians. It is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Australia, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to Standard Australian English to more non-standard forms. There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use. The dialect is not to be confused with Australian Kriol language, which is not mutually intelligible with Australian English but in fact a separate language spoken by over 30,000 people. On the Torres Strait Islands, a distinctive dialect known as Torres Strait English, the furthest extent of which is Torres Strait Creole, is spoken. [12]

Ethnocultural varieties

The ethnocultural dialects are diverse accents in Australian English that are spoken by the minority groups, which are of non-English speaking background. [13] A massive immigration from Asia has made a large increase in diversity and the will for people to show their cultural identity within the Australian context. [14] These ethnocultural varieties contain features of General Australian English as adopted by the children of immigrants blended with some non-English language features, such as the Afro-Asiatic and Asian languages. [12]

In the 1960s, major cities such as Sydney and Melbourne received large numbers of immigrants from Southern Europe and the Middle East (Italians, Greeks, Lebanese, Maltese, Croats, Jews etc.); the second generation of these immigrants can also have a distinct accent, in a similar fashion to the east coast of the United States with descendants of European migrants having the "Jersey accent".[ citation needed ]

Chinese-Australian English has the all-purpose exclamation "aiyah!"/"aiyoh!" (what a shame! - from Mandarin/Cantonese) and sometimes will end sentences with "lah" (from Singlish). [15]

Lebanese Australian English

Lebanese Australian English (LAusE) has been prescribed as a new dialect of Australian English. [16] It is generally spoken by Australian speakers of Lebanese descent. Closely resembling the general Australian accent, the variety was based on the acoustic phonetic characteristics in the speech of young, Lebanese Australian male university students in Sydney, who speak English as their first language and also use vernacular Arabic. Compared to the standard Australian English, the students had minor vowel motion differences with striking voicing and related timing effects. [16] [17]

Other Middle Eastern Australians too, particularly in the Sydney area (in the 2006 census, 72.8% of Lebanese-Australians lived in Sydney) have a similar dialect. Among Arab Australians, words such as "shoo" (what's up) and "yallah" (let's go/goodbye). "Habib" has a use similar to mate (meaning friend), but can also be a pejorative word for males who assert themselves aggressively - a type of person obsessed with grabbing girls' attention, "hotted-up" (meaning modified or hot-rodded) cars and loud music. [15] wallah is also used, meaning "I swear to God" or "Really!"

Regional variation

Although relatively homogeneous, some regional variations in Australian English are notable. The dialects of English spoken in the eastern states, where the majority of the population lives, differ somewhat to those spoken in South Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia. [18] [19] Another notable dialect is Torres Strait English, spoken by the inhabitants of the Torres Strait Islands. Torres Strait English, as distinct from Torres Strait Creole, developed separately to, but has been significantly influenced by, General Australian English.

The regional varieties of English can be distinguished in terms of vocabulary and phonology. With each local dialect taking words from various sources such as British, Irish and American English as well as local Aboriginal languages, it is in vocabulary where regional varieties are most distinct from each other. Regional phonological features may be inherited due to differing settlement patterns or may have developed locally.

Vocabulary

There are differences in the names of beer glasses from one area to another. In the 2000s, however, the range of glass sizes in actual use has been greatly reduced. In New South Wales, swimwear is known as swimmers or cossie and, in Queensland, it is togs. In border areas such as the Tweed Heads-Gold Coast area this can vary. In most other areas, the term bathers dominates. What is referred to by schoolchildren as a bag in most parts of Australia is known as a "port" by some Queenslanders. Further, the processed meat known as "devon" on the East Coast is known as "polony" on the West Coast, while in Central Australia (South Australia and the Northern Territory), the term "fritz" is used.[ citation needed ] Tasmania uses the term "belgium" for the same product. [20]

Tasmanian English features numerous deviations from mainland vocabulary, including "cordial" to refer to carbonated soft drink. [20] [21] Tasmanian vocabulary also retains words from historic English dialects that have otherwise gone extinct - such as Jerry (fog), nointer (a mischievous child), and yaffler (a loud mouthed, obnoxious person), derived from an archaic word for the Green woodpecker. The Norfolk dialect word "rummum" (strange, odd person) has become "rum'un" (a scallywag, eccentric character). [22]

Many regional variations are due to Australians' passion for sport and the differences in non-linguistic traditions from one state to another: the word football refers to the most popular code of football in different States or regions, or even ethnic groups within them. Victorians start a game of Australian rules football with a ball up, Western Australians with a bounce down; New South Wales people and Queenslanders start a game of rugby league football or rugby union football with a kick off, as do soccer players across Australia.[ citation needed ]

From 2004, the national governing body for Association football, (the Football Federation Australia), has promoted the use of "football" in place of "soccer". Several media outlets have adopted this use, [23] [24] while others have stuck with "soccer". [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] However, use of the word "football" to mean either Australian football or rugby league, depending on the major code of the state, remains the standard usage in Australia. In all places, the specific name or nickname of the code ("soccer", "league", "union" or "Aussie rules") can often be heard used for disambiguation.

The slang word footy has been traditionally associated with either Australian rules football (Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, Northern Territory) or rugby league football (New South Wales, Queensland). Prominent examples in popular culture are The Footy Show s; also FootyTAB, a betting wing of the NSW TAB.

For many Australians, the verb barrack (or the accompanying noun form barracker), is used to denote following a team or club. Barrack has its origins in British English, although in the UK it now usually means to jeer or denigrate an opposing team or players. The expression "root (or rooting) for a team", as used in the United States, is not generally used in Australia (root is slang for sexual intercourse in Australia). [30]

There are many regional variations for describing social classes or subcultures. A bogan is also referred to as a bevan in Queensland. These variations, however, have almost completely been replaced by the term bogan. Tasmania sometime uses the terms Chigger and Ravo, derived from the low-socioeconomic suburbs of Chigwell and Ravenswood, though bogan is also understood. [20]

Australian English has adopted and adapted words from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, often for place names (eg: Canberra, Wollongong, Geelong) or the names of animals (eg: kangaroo, kookaburra, barramundi) and plants (eg: waratah, kurrajong). A notable borrowing is "hard yakka" meaning hard work (from Yagara "yaga" meaning work).

Phonology

Variation between /aː/ and /æ/

There exists significant regional variation in terms of the extent to which the trap–bath split has taken hold particularly before /nd/ (especially the suffix -mand), /ns/, /nt/, /ntʃ/ and /mpəl/. In words like chance, plant, branch, sample and demand, the majority of Australians use /æː/ (as in bad). Some, however, use /aː/ (as in cart) in these words, particularly in South Australia, which had a different settlement chronology and type from other parts of the country.[ citation needed ]. In parts of Victoria and South Australia, castle rhymes with hassle rather than parcel. Also, some may use /æː/ in grasp, gasp, plaque and rasp. [31] The table below, based on Crystal (1995), shows the percentage of speakers from different capital cities who pronounce words with /aː/ as opposed to /æ/.

Use of /aː/ as opposed to /æ/
Word Hobart Melbourne Brisbane Sydney Adelaide Ave. over all five cities
graph0%30%56%70%86%48%
chance0%60%25%80%86%50%
demand10%78%78%90%100%71%
dance10%35%11%30%86%34%
castle60%30%33%100%86%62%
grasp90%89%89%95%100%93%
to contrast100%100%100%100%71%94%
Ave. over all seven words39%60%56%81%88%65%
Centring diphthongs

In Western Australian English, the centring diphthong vowels in near and square are typically realised as full diphthongs, [iə] or [ia] and [eə] or [ea] respectively, whereas in the eastern states they may also be realised as monophthongs (without jaw movement), [iː] and [eː] respectively. [32]

L–vocalisation

When /l/ occurs at the ends of words before pauses and before consonants it sometimes sounds like a vowel sound rather than a consonant. This is because /l/ is made with two different articulations. One of the articulations is like a vowel articulation and the other is more like a typical consonant articulation. When /l/ occurs at the ends of words before pauses and before other consonants, the consonantal articulation can be obscured by the vowel articulation. This makes the /l/ sound like /ʊ/. [33]

The tendency for some /l/ sounds to become vowels is more common in South Australian English than that of other states. Milk, for example, in South Australia has a vocalised /l/, leading to the pronunciation [mɪʊ̯k], whereas in other states the /l/ is pronounced as a consonant.[ citation needed ]

Salary–celery merger

In Victoria, many speakers pronounce /æ/ and /e/ in a way that is distinct from speakers in other states. Many younger speakers from Victoria pronounce the first vowel in "celery" and "salary" the same, so that both words sound like "salary". These speakers will also tend to say "halicopter" instead of "helicopter", and pronounce their capital city (Melbourne) as [ˈmæɫbən]. For some older Victorian speakers, the words "celery" and "salary" also sound the same but instead both sound like "celery". These speakers will also pronounce words such as "alps" as "elps". [34] [35]

Variation in /ʉːl/

The vowel in words like "pool", "school" and "fool" varies regionally.[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian English</span> Set of varieties of the English language

Australian English is the set of varieties of the English language native to Australia. It is the country's common language and de facto national language; while Australia has no official language, English is the first language of the majority of the population, and has been entrenched as the de facto national language since British settlement, being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of Australians. It is also the main language used in compulsory education, as well as federal, state and territorial legislatures and courts.

Spoken English shows great variation across regions where it is the predominant language. The United Kingdom has a wide variety of accents, and no single "British accent" exists. This article provides an overview of the numerous identifiable variations in pronunciation. Such distinctions usually derive from the phonetic inventory of local dialects, as well as from broader differences in the Standard English of different primary-speaking populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canadian raising</span> Allophonic rule of vowels prominent in Canada, also found throughout N. American English dialects

Canadian raising is an allophonic rule of phonology in many varieties of North American English that changes the pronunciation of diphthongs with open-vowel starting points. Most commonly, the shift affects or, or both, when they are pronounced before voiceless consonants. In North American English, and usually begin in an open vowel [~], but through raising they shift to, or. Canadian English often has raising in words with both and, while a number of American English varieties have this feature in but not. It is thought to have originated in Canada in the late 19th century.

English phonology is the system of speech sounds used in spoken English. Like many other languages, English has wide variation in pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect. In general, however, the regional dialects of English share a largely similar phonological system. Among other things, most dialects have vowel reduction in unstressed syllables and a complex set of phonological features that distinguish fortis and lenis consonants.

There are a variety of pronunciations in modern English and in historical forms of the language for words spelled with the letter ⟨a⟩. Most of these go back to the low vowel of earlier Middle English, which later developed both long and short forms. The sound of the long vowel was altered in the Great Vowel Shift, but later a new long A developed which was not subject to the shift. These processes have produced the main four pronunciations of ⟨a⟩ in present-day English: those found in the words trap, face, father and square. Separate developments have produced additional pronunciations in words like wash, talk and comma.

This chart shows the most common applications of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to represent English language pronunciations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Warlpiri language</span> Aboriginal Australian language

The Warlpiri language is spoken by close to 3,000 of the Warlpiri people from the Tanami Desert, northwest of Alice Springs, Central Australia. It is one of the Ngarrkic languages of the large Pama–Nyungan family and is one of the largest Aboriginal languages in Australia in terms of number of speakers. One of the most well-known terms for The Dreaming, Jukurrpa, derives from Warlpiri.

South Australian English is the variety of English spoken in the Australian state of South Australia. As with the other regional varieties within Australian English, these have distinctive vocabularies. To a lesser degree, there are also some differences in phonology (pronunciation). There is also significant influence from minority groups within the state, such as the ethnic German community, a sizeable amount of which speak Barossa German.

Australian English (AuE) is a non-rhotic variety of English spoken by most native-born Australians. Phonologically, it is one of the most regionally homogeneous language varieties in the world. Australian English is notable for vowel length contrasts which are absent from most English dialects.

Western Australian English is the English spoken in the Australian state of Western Australia (WA). Although generally the same as most other Australian English, it has some state-specific words – including slang and Aboriginal words – and variations in pronunciation.

In the history of English phonology, there have been many diachronic sound changes affecting vowels, especially involving phonemic splits and mergers. A number of these changes are specific to vowels which occur before, especially in cases where the is at the end of a syllable.

In phonetics and historical linguistics, fusion, or coalescence, is a sound change where two or more segments with distinctive features merge into a single segment. This can occur both on consonants and in vowels. A word like educate is one that may exhibit fusion, e.g. or. A merger between two segments can also occur between word boundaries, an example being the phrase got ya being pronounced like gotcha. Most cases of fusion lead to allophonic variation, though some sequences of segments may lead to wholly distinct phonemes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiff English</span> Regional accent of English, in Wales

The Cardiff accent, also known as Cardiff English, is the regional accent of English, and a variety of Welsh English, as spoken in and around the city of Cardiff, and is somewhat distinctive in Wales, compared with other Welsh accents. Its pitch is described as somewhat lower than that of Received Pronunciation, whereas its intonation is closer to dialects of England rather than Wales.

This article covers the phonology of modern Colognian as spoken in the city of Cologne. Varieties spoken outside of Cologne are only briefly covered where appropriate. Historic precedent versions are not considered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bunuba language</span> Aboriginal language of Australia

Bunuba is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken by some 41 older Bunuba adults, most of whom live in Junjuwa, an Aboriginal community in Fitzroy Crossing in Western Australia. Bunuba is not related to the Pama-Nyungan language family that spans the majority of Australia; however, it is a relative of Guniyandi. Both are subgroups of the Bunuban language family. Bunuba consists of two dialects, 'light' and 'heavy' Bunuba.

This article covers the phonological system of New Zealand English. While New Zealanders speak differently depending on their level of cultivation, this article covers the accent as it is spoken by educated speakers, unless otherwise noted. The IPA transcription is one designed by Bauer et al. (2007) specifically to faithfully represent a New Zealand accent, which this article follows in most aspects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New York accent</span> Sound system of New York City English

The sound system of New York City English is popularly known as a New York accent. The New York metropolitan accent is one of the most recognizable accents of the United States, largely due to its popular stereotypes and portrayal in radio, film, and television. Several other common names exist for the accent that associate it with more specific locations in the New York City area, such as "Bronx accent", "Brooklyn accent", "Queens accent", "Long Island accent", and "North Jersey accent"; however, no research has demonstrated significant linguistic differences between these locations.

The distinction between rhoticity and non-rhoticity is one of the most prominent ways in which varieties of the English language are classified. In rhotic accents, the sound of the historical English rhotic consonant,, is preserved in all pronunciation contexts. In non-rhotic accents, speakers no longer pronounce in postvocalic environments: when it is immediately after a vowel and not followed by another vowel. For example, in isolation, a rhotic English speaker pronounces the words hard and butter as /ˈhɑːrd/ and /ˈbʌtər/, but a non-rhotic speaker "drops" or "deletes" the sound and pronounces them as /ˈhɑːd/ and /ˈbʌtə/. When an r is at the end of a word but the next word begins with a vowel, as in the phrase "better apples," most non-rhotic speakers will preserve the in that position since it is followed by a vowel in this case.

The phonology of Māori is typical for a Polynesian language, with its phonetic inventory being one of the smallest in the world with considerable variation in realisation. The Māori language retains the Proto-Polynesian syllable structure: (C)V(V ), with no closed syllables. The stress pattern is unpredictable, unlike in many other Polynesian languages.

Abercraf English is a dialect of Welsh English, primarily spoken in the village of Abercraf, located in the far south of the traditional county of Brecknockshire, currently administered as part of the unitary authority of Powys.

References

  1. ↑ Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 597
  2. ↑ Robert Mannell (14 August 2009). "Robert Mannell, "Impressionistic Studies of Australian English Phonetics"". Ling.mq.edu.au. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  3. ↑ Australia's unique and evolving sound Edition 34, 2007 (23 August 2007) – The Macquarie Globe
  4. ↑ Lauren Gawne (29 November 2011). "Accent on politicians' speech misses the point". The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 23 March 2013.
  5. ↑ Madigan, Michael (24 November 2010). "Julia Gillard: How broad is my accent?". The Courier-Mail. Brisbane. Retrieved 10 March 2024. 'Perhaps I should start by saying that with my broad Australian accent, even the English speakers in the room may want to access the translation to make sure they're understanding my words,' [Gillard] joked.
  6. ↑ Priestley, Angela (9 April 2014). "The sound of a voice in power: Bob Carr's reflections on Julia Gillard". Women's Agenda. Agenda Media. Retrieved 10 March 2024. Gillard had her broad Australian accent — something that served former prime ministers like Bob Hawke and John Howard particularly well
  7. ↑ Australian National Museum
  8. ↑ "The Different Aussie Accents". theaussieenglishpodcast.com. 5 February 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
  9. 1 2 "Struth! Someone's nicked me Strine – Sushi Das – Opinion". The Age. 28 January 2005. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
  10. 1 2 Amy Corderoy (26 January 2010). "Evolution of Australian accent | interactive website". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
  11. 1 2 Mesthrie, Rajend (2009). Introducing Sociolinguistics . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp.  148. ISBN   978-0748638444.
  12. 1 2 "ethnocultural voices | Australian Voices". Clas.mq.edu.au. 29 July 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  13. ↑ "Australian English | Australian Voices". Clas.mq.edu.au. 30 July 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  14. ↑ "Australian English defined | Australian Voices". Clas.mq.edu.au. 25 October 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  15. 1 2 Harriet Vietch (9 March 2009). "It's our own strain of strine, habib". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
  16. 1 2 Some phonetic characteristics of Lebanese Australian English Australian Linguistic Society Annual Conference - Brisbane. Felicity Cox, Sallyanne Palethorpe. 9 July 2006
  17. ↑ Ethnocultural varieties of Australian English Macquarie University
  18. ↑ Bryant, Pauline (24 August 1992). Regional Variation in the Lexicon of Australian English (PhD). Australian National University. doi: 10.25911/5d7a2638eeaaf . Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  19. ↑ Powell-Davies, Thomas Johannes (2022). Exploring Tasmania's place in Australian English regional variation through diphthongs (Honours thesis). Australian National University. doi:10.25911/W8W9-0952.
  20. 1 2 3 "Tasmanian slang and terminology - ABC (none) - Australian Broadcasting Corporation". www.abc.net.au. ABC Local. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
  21. ↑ Gee, Patrick. "Tasmania's play on words makes it to the Australian National Dictionary". The Mercury. News Corp. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  22. ↑ Moore, Bruce (23 September 2007). "Tasmanian Words – a lingua franca". tasmaniantimes.com. Tasmanian Times. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
  23. ↑ "Foxsports". Foxsports.news.com.au. 7 October 2015.
  24. ↑ "Sydney Morning Herald". The Sydney Morning Herald. 23 December 2012.
  25. ↑ "Daily Telegraph". News.com.au.
  26. ↑ Herald Sun Archived 5 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ↑ The Courier-Mail Archived 5 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ↑ "West Australian". Thewest.com.au. Archived from the original on 19 June 2009. Retrieved 15 May 2009.
  29. ↑ The Advertiser Archived 2 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ↑ "It's rooted: Aussie terms that foreigners just won't get", Tim Richards, http://www.traveller.com.au
  31. ↑ Felicity Cox and Robert Mannell (9 August 2009). "Australian English Transcription Practice Exercises – Orthography". Clas.mq.edu.au. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  32. ↑ "regional accents | Australian Voices". Clas.mq.edu.au. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  33. ↑ "audio illustrations | Australian Voices". Clas.mq.edu.au. 29 July 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  34. ↑ "Regional accents". Macquarie University. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  35. ↑ Loakes, Debbie; Hajek, John; Fletcher, Janet (23 November 2010). "Walcome to Malbourne". Crikey. Private Media Pty Ltd. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 15 November 2015.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.