English language in Northern England

This article is about the varieties of English spoken in the northern part of England, and focuses on accents and dialects. For varieties spoken in other regions of the United Kingdom and Ireland, see English language § Britain and Ireland.

Northern England English
Northern English
Region	Northern England
Language family	Indo-European Germanic West Germanic Ingvaeonic Anglo-Frisian Anglic English British English Anglo-English Northern England English
Writing system	English alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–
Glottolog	nort3299
How the vowel sound in sun varies across England. The thick lines are isoglosses. Northern English dialects have not undergone the FOOT–STRUT split, distinguishing them from Southern English and Scottish dialects. [1]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The spoken English language in Northern England has been shaped by the region's history of settlement and migration, and today encompasses a group of related accents and dialects known as Northern England English or Northern English. ^{[2] [3]}

The strongest influence on modern varieties of Northern English was the Northumbrian dialect of Middle English. Additional influences came from contact with Old Norse during the Viking Age; with Irish English following the Great Famine, particularly in Lancashire and the south of Yorkshire; and with Midlands dialects since the Industrial Revolution. All these produced new and distinctive styles of speech. ^[2]

Traditional dialects are associated with many of the historic counties of England, and include those of Cumbria, Lancashire, Northumbria, and Yorkshire. Following urbanisation in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, distinctive dialects arose in many urban centres in Northern England, with English spoken using a variety of distinctive pronunciations, terms, and expressions. ^{[4] : 16–18} Northern English accents are often stigmatized, ^[5] and some native speakers modify their Northern speech characteristics in corporate and professional environments. ^{[6] [7]}

There is some debate about how spoken varieties of English have impacted written English in Northern England; ^[8] furthermore, representing a dialect or accent in writing is not straightforward. ^[9]

Definition

The varieties of English spoken across modern Great Britain form an accent and dialect continuum, and there is no agreed definition of which varieties are Northern, ^{[4] : 8–14} and no consensus about what constitutes "the North". ^{[10] : 3–9}

Wells uses a broad definition of the linguistic North, comprising all accents that have not undergone the TRAP–BATH and FOOT–STRUT splits. On that basis, the isogloss between North and South runs from the River Severn to The Wash, and covers the entire North of England (which Wells divides into "Far North" and "Middle North") and most of the Midlands, including the distinctive Brummie (Birmingham) and Black Country dialects. ^{[11] : 349–351}

In his seminal study of English dialects, Alexander J. Ellis defined the border between the North and the Midlands as that where the word house is pronounced with u: to the north. ^[12] For Ellis, "the North" occupied the area northwards of a line running from the Humber Estuary on the east coast to the River Lune on the west (more recently, some linguists refer to the River Ribble, slightly further south). ^{[10] : 6}

According to Wells, although well-suited to historical analysis, Ellis's line does not reflect everyday usage, which does not consider Manchester or Leeds, both located south of the line, as part of the Midlands. ^{[11] : 349–350}

An alternative approach is to define the linguistic North as equivalent to the cultural area of Northern England –approximately the seven historic counties of Cheshire, Cumberland, County Durham, Lancashire, Northumberland, Westmorland and Yorkshire, or the three modern statistical regions of North East England, North West England and Yorkshire and the Humber. ^{[4] : 1–8} This approach was taken by the Survey of English Dialects (SED), which used the historic counties (minus Cheshire) as a basis, and grouped Manx English with Northern dialects. ^[13] Under Wells' scheme, the SED's definition includes Far North and Middle North dialects but excludes those of the Midlands. ^{[11] : 349–351}

Scottish English is distinct from Northern England English, although the two have interacted and influenced each other. ^{[4] : 2} The Scots language and the Northumbrian and Cumbrian dialects of English descend from the Old English of Northumbria (diverging in the Middle English period), and are still very similar. ^[14]

History

Many historical northern dialects reflect the influence of Old Norse. ^{[15] [16]} In addition to previous contact with Vikings, during the 9th and 10th centuries most of northern and eastern England was part of either the Danelaw or the Danish-controlled Kingdom of Northumbria (except for much of present-day Cumbria, which was part of the Kingdom of Strathclyde). Consequently, modern Yorkshire dialects, in particular, are considered to have been influenced heavily by Old West Norse (the ancestor of Norwegian) and Old East Norse (the ancestor of Swedish and Danish). ^[17]

During the mid and late 19th century, there was large-scale migration from Ireland, which affected the speech of parts of Northern England. This is most apparent in the accents along the west coast, such as in Liverpool, Birkenhead, Barrow-in-Furness and Whitehaven. ^[18]

Northern accent and dialect varieties

Varieties include:

• Cheshire dialect
• Cumbrian dialect
• Geordie (spoken in the Newcastle/Tyneside area which includes southern parts of Northumberland)
• Lancashire dialect and accent ^[19]
• Mackem (spoken in Sunderland/Wearside)
• Mancunian (spoken in Manchester, Salford, various other areas of Greater Manchester, parts of Lancashire and eastern Cheshire) ^[20]
• Northumbrian dialect ^[21]
• Pitmatic (two varieties: one spoken in the former mining communities of County Durham, and the other in Northumberland)
• Scouse (spoken in the Liverpool/Merseyside area with variations in west Cheshire and southern Lancashire)
• Teesside (spoken in Middlesbrough/Stockton-on-Tees and surrounding areas)
• Yorkshire dialect ^{[22] [23]}

A survey published in 2022 found that compared to the findings of the Survey of English Dialects carried out in the first half of the twentieth century, the edges of many dialect regions have shifted. Furthermore, there are transitional zones between dialects where towns, such as those between Manchester and Liverpool, may display considerable heterogeneity. The authors also found evidence of dialect regions crossing county boundaries. ^{[24] : 50, 61, 62}

Phonological characteristics

Red areas are where English dialects of the late 20th century were rhotic; in the North, only some of Lancashire is included.

Pronunciation of [ŋg] in the word tongue throughout England; the major Northern counties with this trait are located where the North West and West Midlands meet.

Speech features

There are several speech features that unite most of the accents of Northern England and distinguish them from Southern England and Scottish accents. ^{[11] : 349–351}

Trap–bath split

The accents of Northern England generally do not have the trap–bath split observed in Southern England English, so that the vowel in bath, ask and cast is the short TRAP vowel /a/: /baθ,ask,kast/, rather than /ɑː/ found in the south. There are a few words in the BATH set like can't, shan’t, half, calf, rather which are pronounced with /ɑː/ in most Northern English accents as opposed to /æ/ in Northern American accents. The /æ/ vowel of cat, trap is normally pronounced [a] rather than the [æ] found in traditional Received Pronunciation or General American, while /ɑː/, as in the words palm, cart, start, tomato, may not be differentiated from /æ/ by quality, but by length, being pronounced as a longer [aː]. ^{[11] : 353–356}

Foot–strut split

The foot–strut split is absent in Northern English, so that, for example, cut and put rhyme and are both pronounced with /ʊ/; words like love, up, tough, judge, etc. also use this vowel sound. This has led to Northern England being described "Oop North" /ʊpnɔːθ/ by some in the south of England. Some words with /ʊ/ in RP even have /uː/ –book is pronounced /buːk/ in some Northern accents (particularly in Lancashire, Greater Manchester and eastern parts of Merseyside where the Lancashire accent is still prevalent), while conservative accents also pronounce look and cook as /luːk/ and /kuːk/. ^{[11] : 351–353}

Other vowels

The Received Pronunciation phonemes /eɪ/ (as in face) and /əʊ/ (as in goat) are often pronounced as monophthongs (such as [eː] and [oː]), or as older diphthongs (such as /ɪə/ and /ʊə/). However, the quality of these vowels varies considerably across the region, and this is considered a greater indicator of a speaker's social class than the less stigmatised aspects listed above. The /ɒ/ vowel of LOT is a fully open [ɒ] rather than the open-mid [ɔ] of modern Received Pronunciation and Southern England English. ^{[11] : 356}

R sound

The most common R sound, when pronounced in Northern England, is the typical English postalveolar approximant ^ⓘ ; however, an alveolar tap ^ⓘ is also widespread, particularly following a consonant or between vowels. ^{[11] : 368} This tap predominates most fully in the Scouse accent. The North, like most of the South, is largely (and increasingly) non-rhotic, meaning that R is pronounced only before a vowel or between vowels, but not after a vowel (for instance, in words like car, fear, and lurk). However, regions that are rhotic (pronouncing all R sounds) or somewhat rhotic are possible, particularly amongst older speakers: ^{[11] : 368}

• Lancashire and Greater Manchester areas north of the city of Manchester may residually be rhotic or pre-consonantally rhotic (pronouncing R before a consonant but not in word-final position), for example, in Accrington and Rochdale.

• Lincolnshire may weakly retain word-final (but not pre-consonantal) rhoticity.

• Uvular rhoticity, in which the same R sound as in French and German is used, has been described as the traditional "burr" of rural, northern Northumberland  –possible as well, though also rare, in County Durham.

Other features

The North does not have the clear distinction between the "clear L" ^ⓘ and "dark L" ^ⓘ common to most other accents in England; most Northern accents pronounce all L sounds with a moderate amount of velarization. Exceptions to this are in Tyneside, Wearside and Northumberland, where L is clear, ^{[25] : 42} and in Lancashire and Manchester, where L is dark. ^{[26] [27]}

Some northern English speakers have noticeable rises in their intonation: to other speakers of English, they may sound "perpetually surprised or sarcastic." ^[28]

Distinctive sounds

Major distinctive sounds of Northern English ^{[29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37]}

English diaphoneme	Example words	Manchester (Mancunian)	Lancashire	Yorkshire	Cumbria	Northumberland (Pitmatic)	Merseyside (Scouse)	Tyneside (Geordie)
/æ/	bath, dance, trap	[a~ä] listen ⓘ
/ɑː/	bra, calm, father	[aː~äː] listen ⓘ					[äː~ɑː]	[ɑː~ɒː] listen ⓘ
/aɪ/	fight, ride, try	[aɪ~äɪ] listen ⓘ Geordie and Northumberland, when not final or before a voiced fricative: [ɛɪ~əɪ] listen ⓘ
/aʊ/	brown, mouth	[aʊ]	[æʊ]	[aʊ~æʊ]		[ɐʊ]	[æʊ]	[ɐʊ~u:] listen ⓘ
/eɪ/	lame, rein, stain	[ɛɪ~e̞ɪ] listen ⓘ	[e̞ː] listen ⓘ Lancashire, Cumbria, and Yorkshire, when before ght as in weight: [eɪ~ɛɪ]				[eɪ] listen ⓘ	[ɪə~eː]
/ɛ/	bed, egg, bread	[ɛ]
/ɛər/	fair, hare, there	[ɛː] rhotic Lancashire and some places by the Scottish border: [ɛːɹ]					[eː] listen ⓘ (square–nurse merger)	[ɛː]
/ɜːr/	fur, her, stir	[ɜː~ɛː] listen ⓘ rhotic Lancashire and some places by the Scottish border: [əɹː]						[øː~ʊː] listen ⓘ
/ər/	doctor, martyr, smaller	[ə~ɜ~ɛ] listen ⓘ rhotic Lancashire and some places by the Scottish border: [əɹ~ɜɹ]; also, Geordie: [ɛ~ɐ]
/iː/	beam, marine, fleece	[ɪi]				[i] listen ⓘ	[iː~ɨ̞i]	[iː~ei]
/i/	city, honey, parties	[ɪ~e] listen ⓘ		[ɪ~e~i] Hull and northern North Yorkshire: [i] rest of Yorkshire: [ɪ~e]	[ɪi~i]		[i]
/ɪər/	beer, fear, here	[ɪə] rhotic Lancashire and some places by the Scottish border: [ɪəɹ]					[iɛ̯]	[iɐ̯]
/ɔː/	all, bought, saw	[ɒː~ɔː]	[ɒː~ɔː]				[o̞:] listen ⓘ
/ɔːr/	horse, north, war		[ɒː~ɔː] rhotic Lancashire and some places by the Scottish border: [ɒːɹ~ɔːɹ]
	hoarse, force, wore	[ɔː] (possible horse-hoarse distinction)
/oʊ/	goal, shown, toe	[ɔʊ~ɔo]	[oː~ɔː~ɵː] listen ⓘ West Yorkshire, more commonly: [ɔː] Hull, especially female: [ɵː]				[ɔu~ɜu~ɛʉ]	[ʊə~oː]
/ʌ/	bus, flood, put	[ʊ] listen ⓘ (no foot–strut split) Northumberland, less rounded: [ʌ̈]; in Scouse, Manchester, South Yorkshire and (to an extent) Teesside the word one is uniquely pronounced with the vowel [ɒ], and this is also possible for once, among(st), none, tongue, and nothing
/ʊ/
/ʊər/	poor, sure, tour	[ʊə] rhotic Lancashire and some places by the Scottish border: [ʊəɹ]					[o̞:]	[uɐ]
/uː/	food, glue, lose	[ʏː] listen ⓘ	[ʊu] North Yorkshire: [ʉ:]		[ʉː] listen ⓘ	[yː]	[ʉː] listen ⓘ	[ʉu~ʊu~ɵʊ]
/ɒ/	lot, wasp, cough	[ɒ]
intervocalic & postvocalic /k/	racquet, joker, luck	[k] or [k~x]	[k] listen ⓘ				[k~x] listen ⓘ or [k~ç] listen ⓘ	[k~kˀ]
initial /h/	hand, head, home	[∅] or [h]						[h]
/l/	lie, mill, salad	[l~ɫ] /l/ is often somewhat "dark" (meaning velarised) [ɫ] listen ⓘ throughout northern England, but it is particularly dark in Manchester and Lancashire.						[l] listen ⓘ
stressed-syllable /ŋ/	bang, singer, wrong	[ŋg~ŋ] [ŋ] predominates in the northern half of historical Lancashire		[ŋ] [ŋg] predominates only in South Yorkshire's Sheffield			[ŋg~ŋ]	[ŋ]
post-consonantal & intervocalic /r/	current, three, pray	[ɹ] or, conservatively, [ɹ~ɾ] [ʁ] in Lindisfarne and traditional, rural, northern Northumberland					[ɾ]	[ɹ~ɾ]
intervocalic, final & pre-consonantal /t/	attic, bat, fitness	[ʔ] or [t(ʰ)]					[θ̠] listen ⓘ or [ʔ]

Grammar and syntax

In general, the grammatical patterns of Northern English are similar to those of British English. However, Northern English has several unique characteristics. ^[38]

Northern Subject Rule

Under the Northern Subject Rule, the suffix "-s" (which in Standard English grammar only appears in the third person singular present) is attached to verbs in many present and past-tense forms (leading to, for example, "the birds sings"). More generally, third-person singular forms of irregular verbs such as to be may be used with plurals and other grammatical persons; for instance "the lambs is out". In modern dialects, the most obvious manifestation is a levelling of the past tense verb forms was and were. Either form may dominate depending on the region and individual speech patterns (so some Northern speakers may say "I was" and "You was" while others prefer "I were" and "You were") and in many dialects especially in the far North, weren't is treated as the negation of was. ^[39]

Epistemic mustn't

The "epistemic mustn't", where mustn't is used to mark deductions such as "This mustn't be true", is largely restricted within the British Isles to Northern England, although it is more widely accepted in American English, and is likely inherited from Scottish English. A few other Scottish traits are also found in far Northern dialects, such as double modal verbs (might could instead of might be able to), but these are restricted in their distribution and are mostly dying out. ^[40]

Pronouns

While standard English now only has a single second-person pronoun, you, many Northern dialects have additional pronouns either retained from earlier forms or introduced from other variants of English.

The pronouns thou and thee have survived in many rural Northern dialects. In some case, these allow the distinction between formality and familiarity to be maintained, while in others thou is a generic second-person singular, and you (or ye) is restricted to the plural. Even when thou has died out, second-person plural pronouns are common. In the more rural dialects and those of the far North, this is typically ye , while in cities and areas of the North West with historical Irish communities, this is more likely to be yous . ^{[41] : 85–86}

Conversely, the process of "pronoun exchange" means that many first-person pronouns can be replaced by the first-person objective plural us (or more rarely we or wor) in standard constructions. These include me (so "give me" becomes "give us"), we (so "we Geordies" becomes "us Geordies") and our (so "our cars" becomes "us cars"). The latter especially is a distinctively Northern trait. ^{[41] : 84–85}

Almost all British vernaculars have regularised reflexive pronouns, but the resulting form of the pronouns varies from region to region. In Yorkshire and the North East, hisself and theirselves are preferred to himself and themselves. Other areas of the North have regularised the pronouns in the opposite direction, with meself used instead of myself. This appears to be a trait inherited from Irish English, and like Irish speakers, many Northern speakers use reflexive pronouns in non-reflexive situations for emphasis. Depending on the region, reflexive pronouns can be pronounced (and often written) as if they ended -sen, -sel or -self (even in plural pronouns) or ignoring the suffix entirely. ^{[41] : 85–86}

Vocabulary

In addition to Standard English terms, the Northern English lexis includes many words derived from Norse languages, as well as words from Middle English that disappeared in other regions. Some of these are now shared with Scottish English and the Scots language, with terms such as bairn ("child"), bonny ("beautiful"), gang or gan ("go/gone/going") and kirk ("church") found on both sides of the Anglo-Scottish border. ^[42] Very few terms from Brythonic languages have survived, with the exception of place name elements (especially in Cumbrian toponymy) and the Yan Tan Tethera counting system, which largely fell out of use in the nineteenth century. The Yan Tan Tethera system was traditionally used in counting stitches in knitting, ^[43] as well as in children's nursery rhymes, ^[43] counting-out games, ^[43] and was anecdotally connected to shepherding. ^[43] This was most likely borrowed from a relatively modern form of the Welsh language rather than being a remnant of the Brythonic of what is now Northern England. ^{[43] [44]}

The forms yan and yen used to mean one as in someyan ("someone") that yan ("that one"), in some northern English dialects, represents a regular development in Northern English in which the Old English long vowel /ɑː/ <ā> was broken into /ie/, /ia/ and so on. This explains the shift to yan and ane from the Old English ān, which is itself derived from the Proto-Germanic *ainaz. ^{[45] [46]}

A corpus study of Late Modern English texts from or set in Northern England found lad ("boy" or "young man") and lass ("girl" or "young woman") were the most widespread "pan-Northern" dialect terms. Other terms in the top ten included a set of three indefinite pronouns owt ("anything"), nowt ("naught" or "nothing") and summat ("something"), the Anglo-Scottish bairn, bonny and gang, and sel/sen ("self") and mun ("must"). Regional dialects within Northern England also had many unique terms, and canny ("clever") and nobbut ("nothing but") were both common in the corpus, despite being limited to the North East and to the North West and Yorkshire respectively. ^{[8] : 144–146}

See also

• Northern Subject Rule  – Distinctive feature of Northern English and Scots
• Scottish English  – Varieties of English language spoken in Scotland
• West Germanic languages  – Group of languages

References

1. Upton, Clive; Widdowson, John David Allison (2006). An Atlas of English Dialects . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-869274-4.
2. Robinson, Jonnie (1 April 2007). "Regional voices: the north-south divide". British Library. Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2024.
3. Filppula, Markku; Klemola, Juhani (27 August 2020). "External Influences in the History of English". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.284. ISBN   978-0-199-38465-5 . Retrieved 20 October 2024.
4. Hickey, Raymond (2015). "The North of England and Northern English". In Hickey, Raymond (ed.). Researching Northern English. Varieties of English Around the World. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 1–24. doi:10.1075/veaw.g55. ISBN   978-9-027-24915-9. LCCN   2015033286. OCLC   1020144729.
5. "New research reveals prejudice against people with Northern English accents". Northumbria University . 15 June 2022. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2024.
6. Strycharczuk, Patrycja; López-Ibáñez, Manuel; Brown, Georgina; Leemann, Adrian (15 July 2020). "General Northern English. Exploring Regional Variation in the North of England With Machine Learning". Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence . 3 (48): 48. doi: 10.3389/frai.2020.00048 . ISSN   2624-8212. PMC   7861339 . PMID   33733165. p. 16: Our interest was in evaluating the hypothesis that dialect leveling in middle-class Northern English speakers has led to convergence toward a pan-regional General Northern English. We do find some evidence of such convergence, although some accents cluster in this respect (Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield), whereas others remain more distinct (Liverpool, Newcastle).
7. "Accents in Britain: General Northern English (GNE)". Accent Bias Britain. Queen Mary University of London. Archived from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2024. General Northern English (GNE) functions as a 'regional standard' accent in the North of England, and is used there mainly by middle-class speakers. While it is still recognisably northern, speakers of GNE can be very hard to locate geographically more precisely than this.
8. Ruano-García, Javier; Sánchez-García, Pilar; F. García-Bermejo Giner, María (2015). "Northern English: Historical lexis and spelling". In Hickey, Raymond (ed.). Researching Northern English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 131–157. doi:10.1075/veaw.g55.06rua. ISBN   978-9-027-24915-9. LCCN   2015033286. OCLC   1020144729.
9. Honeybone, Patrick; Maguire, Warren (2020). "Chapter 1: Introduction". In Honeybone, Patrick; Maguire, Warren (eds.). Dialect Writing and the North of England. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. doi:10.3366/edinburgh/9781474442565.003.0001. ISBN   978-1-474-44256-5. OCLC   1117545825. p. 6: The issues of the 'accuracy' and 'authenticity' of the representation of a dialect in dialect writing are complicated ones to negotiate, and need to be seen in the light of what a writer intends for a text.
10. Montgomery, Chris (2015). "Borders and boundaries in the North of England" (PDF). In Hickey, Raymond (ed.). Researching Northern English. Varieties of English Around the World. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 345–368 in book; pp. 1–24 in repository: repository pagination used in citations. doi:10.1075/veaw.g55.15mon. ISBN   978-9-027-24915-9. LCCN   2015033286. OCLC   1020144729 . Retrieved 23 October 2024. –via White Rose Research Repository.
11. Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English vol. 2: The British Isles . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759. ISBN   978-0-521-24224-0. OCLC   874021123 . Retrieved 1 January 2025– via Internet Archive.
12. Ellis, Alexander J. (1889). "The Ten Transverse Lines". On Early English Pronunciation, with Especial Reference to Shakspere and Chaucer : Part V, Existing Dialectical as Compared to West Saxon Pronunciation. London: Trübner for the Philological Society, the Early English Text Society, and the Chaucer Society. See p. 19 [1451], section "LINE 6". Retrieved 22 October 2024– via Google Books. LINE 6.–The s. hoos line, or s. limit of the pron. of the word house as hoos (huus), which is also the n. limit of the pron. of house as any variety of (ha'us) [...].
13. Wales (2006), p. 13.
14. "Germanic and Other Languages". Scots Language Centre. Archived from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
15. Jesch, Judith (2017). "Old Norse in England". In Rouse, Robert; Echard, Siân; Fulton, Helen; Rector, Geoff; Fay, Jacqueline A. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature in Britain. Hoboken: Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118396957.wbemlb516. ISBN   978-1-118-39695-7. OCLC   992436496. Old Norse [has] left its mark on a substantial range of English vocabulary as well as a number of form words, not only in some regional dialects but also in the modern standard language.
16. Dance, Richard (2017). "Chapter 11: English Contact: Norse". In Brinton, Laurel J.; Bergs, Alexander (eds.). The History of English. Volume 2: Old English. Mouton Reader. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 202–219. doi:10.1515/9783110525304-011. ISBN   978-3-110-52273-0. OCLC   1004877872. p. 214: The quantity and type of Norse-derived words attested in the dialects of the North and East Midlands are particularly impressive, especially in the Middle English period.
17. "Yorkshire Dialect Words of Old Norse Origin". viking.no. 21 June 2015. Archived from the original on 29 July 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
18. "The Irish in England". CEPR. 1 November 2022. Archived from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
19. "EWDS". EWDS. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
20. "Do you speak 'Manc', 'Lancashire' or 'posh'? First findings from largest ever study of Greater Manchester accents and dialects revealed". www.rochdaleonline.co.uk. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
21. "Home". Northumbrian Language Society. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
22. "Yorkshire English | English Accents". www.uv.es. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
23. "Yorkshire dialect faces extinction, report says". The Northern Echo. 5 July 2007. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
24. Laurel, MacKenzie; Bailey, George; Turton, Danielle (2022). "Towards an updated dialect atlas of British English" (PDF). Journal of Linguistic Geography. 10 (1): 46–66. doi: 10.1017/jlg.2022.2 . ISSN   2049-7547.
25. Beal, Joan C.; Burbano-Elizondo, Lourdes; Llamas, Carmen (2012). Urban North-Eastern English: Tyneside to Teesside. Dialects of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN   978-0-748-64152-9. OCLC   793582295.
26. Beal (2004 :130). Note that the source incorrectly transcribes the dark L with the symbol ⟨ɬ⟩, i.e. as if it were the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative.
27. Hughes, Arthur; Trudgill, Peter; Watt, Dominic (2013). English Accents & Dialects : an Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of English in the British Isles (5th ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN   978-1-444-12138-4. OCLC   900418443. p. 116: [Manchester] /l/ is dark [ɫ] in both onset and coda positions, and in the latter context may be vocalised (e.g. meal, l. 2). In some cases the /l/ is extremely dark in initial position, and may be practically vocalised, e.g. Lake (l. 19), in which /l/ resembles [w].
28. Cruttenden, Alan (March 1981). "Falls and Rises: Meanings and Universals". Journal of Linguistics. 17 (1): 77–91. doi:10.1017/S0022226700006782. ISSN   0022-2267. p. 83: [T]he rises of Belfast and some northern English cities may sound perpetually surprised or sarcastic to southern Englishmen (the precise attitude imputed will depend on other factors like pitch height and the exact type of rise)...
29. Heggarty, Paul; et al., eds. (2013). "Accents of English from Around the World". University of Edinburgh.
30. Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003). The Phonetics of English and Dutch (Fifth Revised ed.). E.J. Brill. ISBN   9004103406.
31. Hughes, Arthur; Trudgill, Peter; Watt, Dominic James Landon (2012). English Accents & Dialects. Routledge. ISBN   9781444121384.
32. Beal (2004).
33. Watson, Kevin (2007), "Liverpool English" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 351–360, doi: 10.1017/s0025100307003180 , S2CID   232345844
34. Watt, Dominic; Allen, William (2003), "Tyneside English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 267–271, doi: 10.1017/s0025100303001397 (inactive 1 November 2024)
35. Honeybone, Patrick; Watson, Kevin. "Phonemes, graphemes and phonics for Liverpool English" (PDF). Retrieved 16 January 2024.
36. Williams & Kerswill (1999), p. 146.
37. Raymond, Hickey, ed. (2015), Researching Northern English, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, ISBN   978-90-272-6767-2
38. Robinson, Jonnie (24 April 2019). "Grammatical variation across the UK". British Library. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
39. Pietsch (2005), pp. 76–80.
40. Beal (2010), pp. 26, 38.
41. Buchstaller, Isabelle [in German]; Corrigan, Karen P. (2015). "Morphosyntactic features of Northern English". In Hickey, Raymond (ed.). Researching Northern English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 71–98. doi:10.1075/veaw.g55.04buc. ISBN   978-9-027-24915-9. LCCN   2015033286. OCLC   1020144729.
42. Trudgill & Hannah (2002), p. 52.
43. Roud, Steve; Simpson, Jacqueline (2000). A Dictionary of English Folklore. Oxford University Press. p. 324. ISBN   0-19-210019-X
44. "The Celtic Linguistic Influence". Yorkshire Dialect Society. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
45. Leith, Dick (1997). A Social History of English. Routledge. p. 45. ISBN   0-415-09797-5. (Alternate ISBN   978-0-415-09797-0)
46. Griffiths, Bill (2004). A Dictionary of North East Dialect. Northumbria University Press. p. 191. ISBN   1-904794-16-5.

Sources

• Beal, Joan (2004). "English dialects in the North of England: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A handbook of varieties of English. Vol. 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 113–133. ISBN   3-11-017532-0.
• Beal, Joan C. (2010). Introduction to Regional Englishes. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN   978-0-7486-8726-8.
• Hickey, Raymond (2015). Researching Northern English. John Benjamins. ISBN   978-90-272-6767-2.
• Lodge, Ken (2009). A Critical Introduction to Phonetics. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN   978-0-8264-8873-2.
• Pietsch, Lukas (2005). ""Some do and some doesn't": Verbal concord variation in the north of the British Isles" (PDF). In Kortmann, Bernd; Herrmann, Tanja; Pietsch, Lukas; Wagner, Susanne (eds.). A Comparative Grammar of British English Dialects: Agreement, Gender, Relative Clauses. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN   978-3-11-018299-6.
• Trudgill, Peter; Hannah, Jean (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English (4th ed.). London: Arnold. ISBN   0-340-80834-9.
• Wales, Katie (2006). Northern English: A Social and Cultural History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-511-48707-1.
• Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759. ISBN   0-52128540-2  .
• Williams, Ann; Kerswill, Paul (1999), "Dialect levelling: change and continuity in Milton Keynes, Reading and Hull" (PDF), in Foulkes, Paul; Docherty, Gerard (eds.), Urban voices. Accent studies in the British Isles., London: Arnold, pp. 141–162, archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2012

Further reading

• Katie Wales (2006), Northern English: A Social and Cultural History, Cambridge University Press, ISBN   0-521-86107-1