List of wars involving Afghanistan

This is a list of wars involving Afghanistan.

Conflict	Afghanistan and allies	Opponents	Results	Details
Hotak dynasty (1709–1738)
Campaigns of Nader Shah (1720s–1747)	Hotak Emirate Ottoman Empire Safavid Empire Crimean Khanate [1] Gazikumukh Khanate Mughal Empire Khanate of Bukhara Khanate of Khiva Khanate of Kokand Lezgins Akusha-Dargo Union Avar Khanate Omani Empire Imamate of Oman Hyderabad State Oudh State Sind State Banu Ka'b Sheikhdom Al Qawasim Sheikhdom Emirate of Al Humaid Emirate of Muhammara Principality of Ardalan Sultanate of Herat Shaki Khanate Elisu Sultanate Kingdom of Kartli Kingdom of Kakheti	Empires of Persia: Safavid Iran (prior to 1736) Afsharid Iran [2] (post 1736) Numerous clients & vassal states	Persian victory	Persian victory The Persian Empire expands to its greatest extent since antiquity and subsequently collapses Ephemeral Persian dominance over Central Eurasia Eventual collapse of the Afsharid Empire
Battle of Gulnabad (1722)	Hotak Dynasty	Safavid Empire	Hotaki victory
Siege of Isfahan (1722)	Hotaks	Safavid Iran	Hotaki victory
Ottoman–Hotaki War (1726–1727)	Hotak Empire	Ottoman Empire	Treaty of Hamedan	Treaty of Hamedan See outcome
Battle of Damghan (1729)	Hotak dynasty	Safavid Iran	Safavid victory	Safavid victory The Hotaki dynasty lost territory in Persia and ended the Hotaki dynasty power in Persia
Battle of Khwar Pass (1729)	Hotak dynasty	Safavid Iran	Safavid victory	Safavid victory Ashraf's ambush failed
Battle of Murche-Khort (1729)	Hotak dynasty Supported by: Ottoman Empire	Safavid Iran	Safavid victory	Safavid victory Liberation of Isfahan
Battle of Zarghan (1730)	Hotak dynasty local Arab tribes	Safavid Iran	Safavid victory
Herat campaign of 1730–1732 (1731-1732)	Sadozai Sultanate of Herat Hotak dynasty	Safavid Iran Afghan loyalists	Safavid victory [3] [4]	Safavid victory [5] [6] Fall of the Sadozai Sultanate of Herat Herat brought under Persian suzerainty once again
Siege of Kandahar (1737-1738)	Hotak dynasty	Afsharid Persia	Afsharid victory	Afsharid victory Fall of the Hotak dynasty. Kandahar and environs are incorporated into Afsharid Persia Part of the city was destroyed by Nader Shah
Sadozai Sultanate of Herat (1716–1732)
Battle of Sangan (1727)	Abdali Afghans Sangani Rebels	Safavid loyalists	Safavid victory	Safavid victory Nader Shah secures the Khaf and Qa'in regions for the Safavids
Herat Campaign of 1729	Abdali Pashtuns (Afghans)	Safavid loyalists	Safavid victory [7]	Safavid victory [8] Herat becomes a vassal of the Safavids
Battle of Kafer Qal'eh (1729)	Abdali Afghans	Safavid loyalists	Safavid victory [9]
Durrani Empire (1747–1823)
Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1748—1769)	Afghan Empire Allied states: Rohilkhand Amb Sind Kalat Oudh Bahawalpur Malerkotla Las Bela Kharan Pothohar Dera Ghazi Khan Makran Jammu Farrukhabad Chitral Dir Bhimber Kangra Kahlur Chamba Kumaon Mankera Allied tribes and groups: Durrani Yusufzai Marwat Bangash Qizilbash Afridi Khattak Gandapur Kakar Jadoon	Mughal Empire Lahore Multan Delhi Agra Kashmir Maratha Empire Peshwa's Dominion Baroda Gwalior Indore Kolhapur Nagpur Jhansi Jath Sikh Confederacy Phulkian Misl Patiala (from 1762) Jind (from 1763) Ahluwalia Misl Bhangi Misl Kanhaiya Misl Ramgarhia Misl Singhpuria Misl Panjgarhia Misl Kalsia (from 1763) Nishanwalia Misl Sukerchakia Misl Dallewalia Misl Nakai Misl Shaheedan Misl Other states: Bharatpur Jaipur Bhopal Udaipur Garhwal Kashmir Amarkot Junagadh Kurwai Kutch Jhang	Durrani victory
Battle of Lahore (1748)	Durrani Empire	Mughal Empire	Durrani victory
Battle of Manupur (1748)	Durrani Empire	Mughal Empire Kingdom of Jaipur Malerkotla State	Mughal victory
Afghan–Sikh Wars (1748–1837)	Durrani Empire (1747–1823) Emirate of Kabul (1823–1837) Supported by: Khanate of Kalat Kingdom of Mankera Principality of Qandahar Peshawar Sardars	Dal Khalsa (1748–1765) Sikh Confederacy (1765–1799) Sikh Empire (1799–1837)	Inconclusive	Inconclusive Sikhs seize Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar and the Khyber Pass. [10]
Battle of Lahore (1752)	Durrani Empire	Mughal Empire	Afghan victory
Sack of Delhi (1757)	Durrani Empire	Mughal Empire Bengal	Durrani victory	Durrani victory Kashmir, Lahore, Multan, Sirhind, and all territories west of the Indus river are annexed by the Durrani Empire. [11]
Battle of Narela (1757)	Durrani Empire	Maratha Confederacy	Durrani victory [12]
Battle of Narela (1758-1761)	Afghan Empire Rohilkhand	Mughal Empire (nominal) Maratha Empire Sikh Confederacy	Afghan victory:	Afghan victory: Afghan Empire retains control over much of contended territories including Peshawar and the Punjab until the Sutlej Mughal emperor exiled and Delhi occupied by Afghan vassal Rohilkhand
Battle of Taraori (1759)	Durrani Empire	Maratha Confederacy Mughal Empire	Durrani victory [13]
Battle of Barari Ghat (1760)	Durrani Empire Kingdom of Rohilkhand	Maratha Empire	Durrani-Rohilla victory
Battle of Sikandarabad (1760)	Durrani Empire Kingdom of Rohilkhand	Malharro Holkar	Durrani victory
Third Battle of Panipat (1761)	Durrani Empire Supported by: Kingdom of Rohilkhand Khanate of Kalat Kingdom of Awadh Amb State Kingdom of Kumaon Sind State Mughal nobles	Maratha Empire Peshwa Holkar State of Indore [14] Scindia State of Gwalior [14] Gaekwad State of Baroda [14]	Durrani victory [15]	Durrani victory [15] Mughal emperor exiled to Awadh
Battle of Nimla (1809)	Durrani Empire	Coalition of Shah Mahmud	Mahmud Coalition victory	Mahmud Coalition victory Mahmud Shah restored as ruler of the Durrani Empire Durrani Empire usurped by Shah Mahmud
Battle of Kafir Qala (1818)	Durrani Empire	Qajar Iran	Inconclusive [16]
Emirate of Herat (1793–1863)
First Herat War (1837–1838)	Emirate of Herat East India Company Supported by: British Empire Afghans Aimaq tribesmen Maimana Khanate Andkhui Khanate Sheberghan Khanate Sar-i Pul Khanate Bukhara Emirate Khiva Khanate [17]	Qajar Iran Supported by: Russian Empire Principality of Qandahār	Iranian withdrawal
Herat campaign (1862-1863)	Principality of Herat	Emirate of Afghanistan Jamshidi tribe Supported by: British Empire East India Company	Afghan victory	Afghan victory Herat incorporated into the Emirate of Afghanistan
Emirate of Kabul (1823-1855) Emirate of Afghanistan (1855-1926)
Dost Mohammad's Campaign to Jalalabad (1834)	Emirate of Kabul	Amirs of Jalalabad Kunar Mohmand Tribe	Barakzai Afghan victory	Barakzai Afghan victory Subjugation of Jalalabad, Bala Bagh, Laghman, and Kunar
Expedition of Shuja ul-Mulk (1833-1834)	Barakzai Principality of Kandahar Emirate of Kabul	Durranis Shah Shujah's forces Supported by British Empire East India Company Sikh Empire [18]	Barakzai Afghan victory	Barakzai Afghan victory Shah Shujah forced to retreat
First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–1842)	Barakzais Emirate of Kabul Principality of Kandahar Khanate of Kalat Khulm (August 1840, November 1841 onwards.) Marri Bugti Afghan Tribes Barakzai Loyalists	Durranis British Empire  • East India Company Durrani Kingdom Maimana Khanate Khulm (August 1840 for mere days, September 1840–November 1841) Sadozai loyalists Supported By: Sikh Empire	Barakzai Afghan victory
Khost rebellion (1856–1857)	Afghanistan	Rebel tribes Khostwal Waziri	Government victory	Rebellion suppressed
Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880)	Afghanistan	British Empire   India Afzalids	Anglo-Afzalid victory	Anglo-Afzalid victory Treaty of Gandamak Abdur Rahman Khan installed as Emir [19] Kandahar re-ceded to Afghanistan. Districts of Quetta, Pishin, Sibi, Harnai & Thal Chotiali ceded to British India [20]
Russian conquest of Central Asia (1885)	Kazakh rebels Turkmen tribes   Afghanistan (1885) British Empire (1885)	Russian Empire Allied Turkic tribes	Russian victory	Russian victory Establishment of Russian Turkestan in Central Asia Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand made protectorates of the Russian Empire
Panjdeh incident (1885 [a] )	Emirate of Afghanistan   United Kingdom	Russian Empire	Defeat	Afghan Boundary Commission delaminates Afghan–Russian border from 1884–1888 [21] Russia cedes Zu'l Faqar but retains Panjdeh [22] See § Results
1888–1893 Hazara uprisings	Emirate of Afghanistan	Hazara people	Afghan victory	Killing and displacement of 60% of the Hazara people's population including 35,000 families that fled to northern Afghanistan, Mashhad (Qajar Iran) and Quetta [23]
Khost rebellion (1912)	Emirate of Afghanistan	Rebel tribes Mangal Jadran Ghilzai	Government victory
Basmachi movement (1916–1930)	Russian Republic (1917) Russian SFSR Turkestan ASSR Kirghiz ASSR Khorezm PSR Bukharan PSR Soviet Union (from December 30, 1922) In cooperation with: Amanullah loyalists (1929)   Afghanistan (1930)	Basmachi movement Khanate of Khiva (1918–20) White Army Alash Autonomy (1919–20) [24] Emirate of Bukhara (1920) Supported by:   Afghanistan (until mid-1922) [25] Saqqawists (1929) [26] Emirate of Afghanistan (1929)	Soviet-Afghan victory	Soviet-Afghan victory Turkestan incorporated into the Soviet Union
Khost rebellion (1912)	Emirate of Afghanistan	Rebel tribes Mangal Jadran Ghilzai	Government victory
Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)	Afghanistan	United Kingdom   India	Inconclusive	See § Outcome and negotiation
Alizai rebellion of 1923 [note 1]	Emirate of Afghanistan	Alizai rebels	Government victory
Khost rebellion (1924–c. early 1925)	Emirate of Afghanistan Allied tribes: Khogyani Shinwari	Rebel tribes Mangal Alikhel Sulaimankhel Jaji [30] Jadran [31] Ahmadzai	Afghan government victory	Afghan government victory Execution of rebel leaders Various reforms delayed
Saqqawist low-level insurgency (1924–1928)	Afghanistan	Saqqawists	Escalated into civil war
Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)	Emirate of Afghanistan (1925–1926) Kingdom of Afghanistan (1926)	Soviet Union	Afghan victory	Afghan victory The Soviet Union recognizes Urtatagai as Afghan territory Afghanistan forced to restrain Basmachi border raids
Kingdom of Afghanistan (1926–1973)
First Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)	Kingdom of Afghanistan Hazara volunteers [32] Various anti-Saqqawist Pashtun tribes Wardak Maydan Jalriz Sanglakh Soviet Union [33] (See 1929 Red Army intervention in Afghanistan )	Saqqawists (November 1928 – October 1929) Emirate of Afghanistan (January – October 1929) Supported by: Basmachi movement (1929) Shinwari tribesmen (November–December 1928)	Anti-Saqqawist victory	Anti-Saqqawist victory Fall of Amanullah Khan's government in January 1929, leading to the establishment of a Saqqawist government. Saqqawist collapse in October 1929, leading to Mohammed Nādir Khān becoming King of Afghanistan.
Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)	Soviet Union Kingdom of Afghanistan	Emirate of Afghanistan Basmachi	Inconclusive [34]	Inconclusive [35] The Red Army established control over Balkh Province, but withdrew to the USSR after the flight of King Amanullah Khan abroad.
Shinwari rebellion (1930)	Kingdom of Afghanistan	Shinwari tribesmen	Government victory	Rebellion suppressed
Kuhistan rebellion (1930)	Kingdom of Afghanistan	Saqqawist rebels	Government victory
Battle of Herat [36] (1931)	Kingdom of Afghanistan	Saqqawists	Government victory	Saqqawists wiped out
Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947	Afghanistan  •Allied Nuristani and Shinwari tribesmen United Kingdom  • India	Rebel tribes: Zadran (1944–1947) Safi (until 1946) Mangal (1945)	Afghan government victory
1945 Hazara Rebellion (1945–1946)	Kingdom of Afghanistan	Hazara rebels	Rebellion failed [37]	Rebellion failed [38] Hazara Rebels withdrawal from District Hazara Rebel’s Demands met Taxes revoked
Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishes (1949–present)	Afghanistan Supported by: Soviet Union (until 1991)	Pakistan [b]	Ongoing	Ongoing Occasional clashes [39]
Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)
Panjshir Valley uprising (1975 [40] )	Afghanistan	Jamiat-e Islami Pakistan ISI [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] Supported by: Iran SAVAK [46] [47]	Afghan government victory	Afghan government victory Uprising suppressed successfully Jamiat-e Islami commanders flee to Pakistan [48] End of the 1975 uprisings in Afghanistan
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1987)
Saur Revolution (1978)	Republic of Afghanistan	People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan	PDPA victory	PDPA victory Overthrow and execution of Mohammad Daoud Khan and his family Purging of Daoud's supporters from the government [49] Establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Eventual Soviet military intervention
Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989)	Soviet Union   Afghanistan	Afghan mujahideen Pakistan	Defeat	Afghan mujahideen victory Geneva Accords Withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan Afghan Civil War continues
Republic of Afghanistan (1987–1992)
Second Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)	Republic of Afghanistan Supported by: Soviet Union (until 1991) India Commonwealth of Independent States (from 1991) [50] Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Russia (until January 1992)	Afghan Interim Government [51] Jamiat-e Islami Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin (until July 1989) [51] National Islamic Front of Afghanistan Ittehad-e Islami Hezb-i Islami Khalis Harakat-i Inqilab-i Islami [52] Independent Factions: Khalq (1990) [53] Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin (from July 1989) [51] Junbish-i Milli (from 1992) Foreign Mujahideen: Al Qaeda [54] Maktab al-Khidamat Various factions also fought among each other Supported by: Pakistan United States Saudi Arabia United Kingdom China Germany Iran	Afghan Interim Government victory	Dissolution of the Homeland Party Government The Peshawar Accord leads to the creation of the Islamic State of Afghanistan on 28 April 1992 Continued civil war among Mujahideen forces
Islamic State of Afghanistan (1992–2001)
Third Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)	Islamic State of Afghanistan Northern Alliance Jamiat-e Islami Shura-e Nazar Hezb-e Islami Khalis (until mid-1992) Ittehad-e Islami Harakat-i-Inqilab Jebh-e Nejat-e Melli Mahaz-e Milli Harakat-i Islami Hezb-i Wahdat (until Dec. 1992) Junbish-i Milli (until Jan. 1994; from Aug. 1994) Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin (from late 1994) Supported by:   Saudi Arabia   Uzbekistan (until Jan. 1994; from Aug. 1994)   Iran (until Dec. 1992)	Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin (until late 1994) Khalq (pro Gulbuddin factions, until late 1994) [16] Supported by:   Pakistan Hezb-i Wahdat (after Dec. 1992) Junbish-i Milli (Jan. 1994-Aug. 1994) Supported by:   Uzbekistan Regional Kandahar Militia Leaders Afghan Army and Airforce Remnants (allegedly, until October 1992) Taliban (from late 1994) Khalq (pro Taliban factions, from late 1994) Al-Qaeda (from early 1996) Supported by:   Pakistan	Military stalemate in Northern Afghanistan	Taliban take control of Kabul and most of Afghanistan; [55] Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan established Thousands of civilians killed, millions driven from their homes, [56] Kabul heavily damaged. [57] Grave mistreatment of civilians (murder, looting, extortion) [58] Civil war continues (1996–2001)
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)
Fourth Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)	Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Taliban Al-Qaeda	Islamic State of Afghanistan United Front	Stalemate	Stalemate with varying fronts between the Taliban and Massoud's forces (United Front)
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2001–2021)
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)	Invasion (2001): United States Northern Alliance United Kingdom France Canada Italy Germany Australia New Zealand	Invasion (2001): Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Taliban Haqqani network Non-state allies: Al-Qaeda 055 Brigade Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan [59] Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi [60] [61] Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad [62] [63]	American-led coalition victory (Phase 1)	Collapse of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001) Establishment of the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan Start of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
ISAF/RS phase (2001–2021):   Islamic State of Afghanistan (2001–2002)   Afghan Transitional Authority (2002–2004)   Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004–2021)   ISAF  (2001–2014; 51 countries) [64]  United States  United Kingdom  Canada  Germany  Australia  Italy  New Zealand   France   Turkey   Georgia (country)   Jordan   Bulgaria   Poland   Romania   Spain   Czech Republic   Macedonia   Denmark   Armenia   Azerbaijan   Finland   Croatia   Hungary   Norway   Lithuania   Mongolia   United Arab Emirates   Belgium   Portugal   Slovakia   Netherlands   Montenegro   Latvia   Sweden   Albania   Ukraine   Bosnia–Herzegovina   Greece   Ireland   Iceland   Estonia   Austria   Malaysia   Slovenia   Colombia   Switzerland   Bahrain   El Salvador   Luxembourg   South Korea   Tonga   Singapore   Resolute Support  (2015–2021; 36 countries) [65] High Council of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (allegedly; from 2015) [66] [67] Khost Protection Force and other pro-government paramilitaries [68]	ISAF/RS phase (2001–2021):   Taliban  ·  Haqqani network [69] (from 2002)   al-Qaeda  ·  Al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent [70] Taliban splinter groups  ·  Mullah Dadullah Front (from 2012) [71]  ·  Fidai Mahaz (from 2013) Supported by: Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin (on and off until 2016) Islamic Jihad Union [72] [73] (from 2002) Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (until 2015) Turkistan Islamic Party Lashkar-e-Jhangvi [74] Pakistani Taliban [75] Lashkar-e-Islam   Iran (alleged, but denied by Iran) [76]   Pakistan (alleged, but denied by Pakistan) [77] [78]   Russia (alleged, but denied by Russia) [79] [80] [81]   Saudi Arabia (alleged, but denied by Saudi Arabia) [82] [83]   Qatar (alleged by Saudi Arabia, but denied by Qatar) [84] [85]   China (alleged by the US, but denied by China) [86] [87] RS phase (2015–2021): ISIL–KP (from 2015) [88] Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (since 2015) [89]	Taliban victory (Phase 2)	Destruction of al-Qaeda militant training camps Death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan Coalition failure to quell Taliban insurgency since 2006 Doha Agreement (2020) Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021) 2021 Taliban offensive culminating in Fall of Kabul Overthrow of coalition-backed Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on 15 August 2021
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (2021–present)
Islamic State–Taliban conflict (2015–present)	Afghanistan Taliban Haqqani network [90] Al-Qaeda [91] Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (pro-Taliban & anti-IS factions) [92] Turkistan Islamic Party Pakistani Taliban	Islamic State Khorasan Province IS central command [93] Mullah Dadullah Front (until 2016) Fidai Mahaz [94] (until 2021) Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (pro-IS factions) [92] [95]	Ongoing	Initial Taliban victories in the battles of Darzab and Nangarhar [96] Collapse of the Islamic State stronghold in eastern Afghanistan in 2019 [97] Taliban captures all of the former Islamic Republic territory in 2021 IS-KP regains strength in eastern Afghanistan following Taliban takeover [98] IS-KP rebellion in eastern Afghanistan suppressed [99] Continued IS-KP guerilla warfare and insurgent attacks, including cross-border attacks into Pakistan [99]
Republican insurgency in Afghanistan (2021–present)	Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Taliban al-Qaeda (alleged) [100] Supported by:   Pakistan (until 2024; unconfirmed)	Islamic Republic of Afghanistan loyalists [note 2] National Resistance Front (NRF) Ahmad Khan Samangani Front [102] Afghanistan Freedom Front Afghanistan Islamic National & Liberation Movement Many smaller factions [note 3] Supported by: Tajikistan (alleged) [103] [104]   Pakistan (alleged, since 2024) [105] [106] Independent militias Taliban dissidents	Ongoing	Ongoing as a hit-and-run campaign Taliban captures part of the Panjshir Valley, NRF controls no territory outside of Panjshir [107] [108]

Notes

1. According to Survey of International Affairs, the rebellion started in summer 1923, ^[16] and according to An Intimate War: An Oral History of the Helmand Conflict, 1978–2012, the rebellion lasted 6 months. Since all sources agree that the rebellion took place in 1923, the earliest possible start date is 22 June (the date of summer solstice in Afghanistan in 1923 ^[27] ), while last possible start date is 1 July ^[28] (6 months after any later date would put the end date in 1924 ^[29] ).
2. Though the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ceased to exist on 15 August 2021, many soldiers, officials and other loyalists relocated to Panjshir and rallied under its banner. These elements and exiled officials claimed to maintain the republic in some form, ^[101] with Amrullah Saleh styling himself "caretaker" president.
3. Freedom Corps, Liberation Front of Afghanistan, Soldiers of Hazaristan, Freedom and Democracy Front, High Council of Resistance, Atta Mohammad Noor's militia, ect.

1. The final agreement was signed only in July 1887

References

1. Axworthy, Michael (2009). The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant. I. B. Tauris
2. "FLAGS i. Of Persia". Encyclopedia Iranica.
3. Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2010). "Overview of 1700-1750: Chronology". A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 728.
4. Amanat, Abbas (2012) [2003]. "HERAT vi. THE HERAT QUESTION". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 2. pp. 219–224.
5. Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2010). "Overview of 1700-1750: Chronology". A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 728.
6. Amanat, Abbas (2012) [2003]. "HERAT vi. THE HERAT QUESTION". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 2. pp. 219–224.
7. "HERAT iii. HISTORY, MEDIEVAL PERIOD". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2025-06-11. Nāder Shah Afšār, the successor of the Safavids, recaptured Herat in 1729, and it remained a part of the Persian state throughout his reign
8. "HERAT iii. HISTORY, MEDIEVAL PERIOD". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2025-06-11. Nāder Shah Afšār, the successor of the Safavids, recaptured Herat in 1729, and it remained a part of the Persian state throughout his reign
9. Perry, J. R. (1985). "ALLĀHYĀR KHAN ABDĀLĪ". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 8. p. 893. Allāhyār Khan lost battles at Kāfer Qaḷʿa (present-day Eslām Qaḷʿa) and Rebāṭ-e Parīān, fell back on Herat, and was soon obliged to surrender.
10. Lee, Jonathan L. (2022-03-08). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 142. ISBN   978-1-78914-019-4.
11. Noelle-Karimi 2014, p. 101. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNoelle-Karimi2014 (help)
12. Barua, Pradeep (2005). The state at war in South Asia. University of Nebraska Press. p. 55. ISBN   9780803213449.
13. Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011-07-22). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: 2 volumes [2 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 43. ISBN   978-1-59884-337-8.
14. Robinson, Howard; James Thomson Shotwell (1922). Mogul Empire. The Development of the British Empire. Houghton Mifflin. p. 91.
15. Kaushik Roy, India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil, (Orient Longman, 2004), 90.
16. Maley, William (2002), Maley, William (ed.), "The Interregnum of Najibullah, 1989–1992" , The Afghanistan Wars, London: Macmillan Education UK, p. 193, doi:10.1007/978-1-4039-1840-6_9, ISBN   978-1-4039-1840-6 , retrieved 2022-12-27
17. L.Lee, Johnathan (1996). The 'Ancient Supremacy': Bukhara, Afghanistan & the Battle for Balkh, 1731–1901. Brill Publishers. p. 150. ISBN   978-90-04-10399-3. ISSN   0929-2403.
18. Lee, Jonathan (2019). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 205. ISBN   9781789140101.
19. Lee, Jonathan (2019). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 383. ISBN   9781789140101.
20. Blood 1996, pp. 20–21. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlood1996 (help)
21. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-17. Retrieved 2024-06-06.
22. Lee, Jonathan (1996). The "Ancient Supremacy": Bukhara, Afghanistan and the Battle for Balkh, 1731-1901. BRILL. p. 463. ISBN   9789004103993.
23. دلجو, عباس (2014). تاریخ باستانی هزاره ها. کابل: انتشارات امیری. ISBN   9936801504.
24. In union with him and Bey Madamin counter-revolutionary robber bands from July 10, 1919, to January 1920.
25. Muḥammad, Fayz̤; Hazārah, Fayz̤ Muḥammad Kātib (1999). Kabul Under Siege: Fayz Muhammad's Account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener. p. 12. ISBN   9781558761551.
26. Saqqawists had fought only in northern Afghanistan.
27. "Seasons in Kabul – First Day of Spring Season".
28. "Calculate Duration Between Two Dates – Results".
29. "Calculate Duration Between Two Dates – Results".
30. Poullada, Leon B. (1973). Reform and rebellion in Afghanistan, 1919–1929: King Amanullah's failure to modernize a tribal society. Cornell University Press. p. 123. ISBN   9780801407727.
31. Chua, Andrew. "The Promise and Failure of King Amanullah's Modernisation Program in Afghanistan" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-03-29. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
32. Mohammad, Fayz (1999). Kabul Under Siege : Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising (Translated ed.). Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 168, 216–217. ISBN   1558761543.
33. Ritter, William S. (1990). "Revolt in the Mountains: Fuzail Maksum and the Occupation of Garm, Spring 1929". Journal of Contemporary History. 25 (4): 547–580. doi:10.1177/002200949002500408. ISSN   0022-0094. JSTOR   260761. S2CID   159486304.
34. Braithwaite, Rodric (11 September 2013). Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan 1979-89. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-932248-0.
35. Braithwaite, Rodric (11 September 2013). Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan 1979-89. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-932248-0.
36. "MOḤAMMAD NĀDER SHAH – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2019-04-23.
37. Cole, Juan Ricardo; Keddie, Nikki R. (January 1986). Shi'ism and Social Protest. Yale University Press. ISBN   0-300-03553-5.
38. Cole, Juan Ricardo; Keddie, Nikki R. (January 1986). Shi'ism and Social Protest. Yale University Press. ISBN   0-300-03553-5.
39. "Afghan police officer killed in border clash with Pakistanis". Washington Post. 2 May 2013. Archived from the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019. For years, Afghanistan and Pakistan have accused each other of border infringements, but fighting has been rare.
40. "Dossiers of rebel field commanders". digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
41. Owen L. Sirrs, Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate: Covert action and internal operations, Routledge (2016), pp. 112-113
42. "Afghan-Pakistani Trouble Brewing Again Near the Khyber Pass". The New York Times. 13 August 1975.
43. Kiessling, Hein (2016). Unity, Faith and Discipline: The Inter-Service Intelligence of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. The era of ISI action in Afghanistan now began. A first large scale operation in 1975 was encouragement of large scale rebellion in the Panjshir valley.
44. Houèrou, Fabienne La (2014). Humanitarian Crisis and International Relations 1959-2013. Bentham Science Publisher. p. 150. The president Khan revived adversarial stance not only toward Pakistan, but to the sponsor, USSR. First Daoud Khan set off proxy war in Pakistan, but in retaliation faced growing Islamic fundamentalists movement within Afghanistan
45. Newton, Michael (2014). Famous Assassination in World History:An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 106. By 1976, while proxy guerilla war with Pakistan, Daoud faced rising Islamic fundamentalists movement led by exiled cleric aided openly by Pakistani prime minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.
46. Owen L. Sirrs, Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate: Covert action and internal operations, Routledge (2016), pp. 112-113
47. "The Afghan Communists" (PDF). www.brookings.edu.
48. Owen L. Sirrs, Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate: Covert action and internal operations, Routledge (2016), pp. 112-113
49. "1978: Afghan coup rebels claim victory". BBC News . 29 April 1978. Archived from the original on 6 May 2023.
50. Gibson, Joshua James (2015). An Unsustainable Arrangement: The Collapse of the Republic of Afghanistan in 1992 (MA thesis). Ohio State University. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
51. Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Afghanistan: The Forgotten War: Human Rights Abuses and Violations of the Laws of War Since the Soviet Withdrawal". Refworld. Retrieved 2023-07-12.
52. Goodson 2011, p. 189.
53. Coll, Steve (28 November 2012). "In Afghanistan, Dinner and Then a Coup". The New Yorker– via www.newyorker.com.
54. "What Happened In The Battle Of Jalalabad?". rebellionresearch. 5 April 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
55. Country profile: Afghanistan (published August 2008) Archived 11 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine
56. See sections Bombardments and Timeline 1994, Januari-June
57. See section Bombardments
58. See sections Atrocities and Timeline
59. "Uzbek Militancy in Pakistan's Tribal Region" (PDF). Institute for the Study of War. 27 January 2011. Retrieved 2023-11-30.
60. "Inside rebel Pakistan cleric's domain - USATODAY.com". USA Today . 2009-05-01. Archived from the original on May 1, 2009. Retrieved 2023-11-30.
61. "Top Pakistani militant released". BBC News. 2008-04-21. Archived from the original on 2009-05-22. Retrieved 2023-11-30.
62. Whitlock, Craig (June 8, 2006). "Al-Zarqawi's Biography". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. Retrieved 2023-11-30.
63. Bergen, Peter. " The Osama bin Laden I Know, 2006
64. "ISAF's mission in Afghanistan (2001–2014)". NATO. 30 May 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2025.
65. "Resolute Support Mission (RSM): Key Facts and Figures" (PDF). NATO.
66. Multiple sources:
    • Nordland, Rod; Sukhanyar, Jawad; Shah, Taimoor (19 June 2017). "Afghan Government Quietly Aids Breakaway Taliban Faction". The New York Times . Retrieved 6 September 2017.
    • Donati, Jessica; Totakhil, Habib Khan (23 May 2016). "Afghan Government Secretly Fosters Taliban Splinter Groups". Wall Street Journal.
    • "Taliban splinter group declares open-ended truce with Kabul". Stars and Stripes. 10 June 2018.
    • "Prayer ceremony for Taliban faction's deputy held at Herat Grand Mosque". Ariana News. 17 May 2021. The group had recently aligned itself with the government, and fighters were sent to Niazi as part of an uprising force to secure a number of Herat districts.
67. "Local Officials Criticized for Silence on Shindand Strike". TOLOnews. 11 January 2020.
68. Raghavan, Sudarsan (December 3, 2015). "CIA runs shadow war with Afghan militia implicated in civilian killings". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 March 2025.
69. Joscelyn, Thomas; Roggio, Bill (31 July 2015). "The Taliban's new leadership is allied with al Qaeda". The Long War Journal. Retrieved 19 March 2025.
70. Hardaha, Rashi (2021-07-24). "Al-Qaeda operates under Taliban protection: UN report". India TV News. Retrieved 2021-09-14.
71. Nordland, Rod (19 May 2012). "In Afghanistan, New Group Begins Campaign of Terror". The New York Times . Retrieved 25 June 2021.
72. "Taliban storm Kunduz city". The Long War Journal. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
73. "Central Asian groups split over leadership of global jihad". The Long War Journal. 24 August 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
74. "Who is Lashkar-e-Jhangvi?". Voice of America. 25 October 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
75. "ISIS 'Outsources' Terror Attacks to the Pakistani Taliban in Afghanistan: U.N. Report". Newsweek . 15 August 2017.
76. Multiple sources:
    • "Report: Iran pays $1,000 for each U.S. soldier killed by the Taliban". NBC News. 9 May 2010.
    • Tabatabai, Ariane M. (9 August 2019). "Iran's cooperation with the Taliban could affect talks on U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan". The Washington Post.
    • "Iran denies Taliban were paid bounties to target US troops". AP News. 18 August 2020.
    • Patrikarakos, David (25 August 2021). "Iran is an immediate winner of the Taliban takeover". The Spectator.
    • Salahuddin, Syed (27 May 2018). "Iran funding Taliban to affect US military presence in Afghanistan, say police and lawmakers". Arab News.
    • Siddique, Abubakar; Shayan, Noorullah (31 July 2017). "Mounting Afghan Ire Over Iran's Support For Taliban". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
77. Jamal, Umair (23 May 2020). "Understanding Pakistan's Take on India-Taliban Talks". The Diplomat.
78. Farmer, Ben (26 August 2020). "Pakistan urges Taliban to get on with Afghan government talks". The National.
79. Multiple sources:
    • Martinez, Luis (10 July 2020). "Top Pentagon officials say Russian bounty program not corroborated". ABC News.
    • Loyd, Anthony (October 16, 2017). "Russia funds Taliban in war against Nato forces". The Times. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
80. Noorzai, Roshan; Sahinkaya, Ezel; Gul Sarwan, Rahim (3 July 2020). "Afghan Lawmakers: Russian Support to Taliban No Secret". Voice of America.
81. "Russian ambassador denies Moscow supporting Taliban". Reuters. 25 April 2016.
82. "Saudis Bankroll Taliban, Even as King Officially Supports Afghan Government". The New York Times. 12 June 2016.
83. Ramani, Samuel (7 September 2017). "What's Behind Saudi Arabia's Turn Away From the Taliban?". The Diplomat.
84. "Qatar's Dirty Hands". National Review . 3 August 2017.
85. "Saudi has evidence Qatar supports Taliban: Envoy". Pajhwok Afghan News . 7 August 2017.
86. "China offered Afghan militants bounties to attack US soldiers: reports". Deutsche Welle. 31 December 2020.
87. Gittleson, Ben (1 January 2021). "US investigating unconfirmed intel that China offered bounties on American troops". ABC7 San Francisco. A spokesperson for China's foreign ministry, Wang Wenbin, on Thursday denied the accusation, calling it a 'smear and slander against China' that was 'completely nonsense' and 'fake news'.
88. Seldin, Jeff (18 November 2017). "Afghan Officials: Islamic State Fighters Finding Sanctuary in Afghanistan". Voice of America. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 18 November 2017.
89. "A look at the Islamic State affiliate's rise in Afghanistan". AP News. 19 August 2019.
90. "Afghanistan Faces Tough Battle as Haqqanis Unify the Taliban". ABC News. 8 May 2016. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016.
91. Roggio, Bill (12 July 2021). "Taliban advances as U.S. completes withdrawal". FDD's Long War Journal . Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
92. Roggio, Bill; Weiss, Caleb (14 June 2016). "Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan faction emerges after group's collapse". Long War Journal. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
93. Johnson 2016, p. 1. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2016 (help)
94. "Taliban leader Dadullah joins Afghanistan's ISIL | Pakistan Today". archive.pakistantoday.com.pk. 10 September 2015. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2021.
95. "Taliban say gap narrowing in talks with US over Afghanistan troop withdrawal". Military Times. 5 May 2019.
96. Seldin, Jeff (20 March 2020). "US Admits Taliban Offensive Is Whittling IS's Grip on Afghanistan". Voice of America.
97. Gibbons-Neff, Thomas; Mashal, Mujib (2 December 2019). "ISIS Is Losing Afghan Territory. That Means Little for Its Victims". The New York Times.
98. Zenn (2021), p. 2. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZenn2021 (help)
99. Gannon, Kathy (11 April 2022). "Islamic State morphs and grows in Pakistan, Afghanistan". Associated Press . Jalalabad . Retrieved 17 November 2022.
100. Roggio, Bill (2 September 2021). "National Resistance Front repels multi-day Taliban assault on Panjshir | FDD's Long War Journal". www.longwarjournal.org. Archived from the original on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
101. Ghosh, Poulomi (30 September 2021). "'Useless': Taliban say Amrullah Saleh's 'govt in exile' won't be able to deceive world". msn. Archived from the original on October 9, 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
102. "چه کسانی در سمنگان با طالبان می‌جنگند؟". ایندیپندنت فارسی (in Persian). 8 December 2021. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
103. "Afghan resistance has sanctuary in Tajikistan, but fighting Taliban a 'non-viable prospect'". France24 . 10 October 2021. Archived from the original on 5 April 2022. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
104. "Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan diverge on approaches to Afghanistan". eurasianet . 24 September 2021. Archived from the original on April 19, 2022.
105. "Pakistan's Strategic Leverage and Afghanistan's Pinpoints". Modern Diplomacy.eu. 1 January 2025. The Pakistani military and intelligence agencies maintain extensive networks within Afghanistan and the Afghan diaspora, which they leverage to support resistance movements opposed to the Taliban. Groups such as the National Resistance Front (NRF), which challenge the Taliban's authority in various parts of the country, often look to Pakistan for support in their efforts.
106. "Pakistan's Afghan dilemma: Bad options, worse outcomes". ORF Online. Pakistani media handles, believed to be acting as mouthpieces of the Pakistan Army, declared that the ISI was now engaging rag-tag Afghan resistance groups based in Tajikistan, like the National Resistance Front (NRF). They pointed to the sudden increase in activity of the NRF and other anti-Taliban groups in Afghanistan, hinting that this was, in part, because Pakistan had started backing these groups as payback for the Taliban backing the TTP.
107. Pannett, Rachel; Khan, Haq Nawaz; Mehrdad, Ezzatullah; O'Grady, Siobhán (6 September 2021). "Panjshir Valley, last resistance holdout in Afghanistan, falls to the Taliban". The Washington Post. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
108. Roggio, Bill (6 September 2021). "Taliban completes conquest of Afghanistan after seizing Panjshir". FDD's Long War Journal. Archived from the original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2021.

Sources

• Goodson, Larry P. (2011). Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban. University of Washington Press. ISBN   978-0-295-80158-2. OCLC   1026403863.