Chennai is located at 13°02′N80°10′E / 13.04°N 80.17°E on the southeast coast of India and in the northeast corner of Tamil Nadu. It is located on a flat coastal plain known as the Eastern Coastal Plains. The city has an average elevation of 6 metres (20 ft), its highest point being 60 m (200 ft). Chennai is 2,184 kilometres (1,357 miles) south of Delhi, 1,337 kilometres (831 miles) southeast of Mumbai, and 1,679 kilometers (1,043 miles) southwest of Kolkata by road.
The geology of Chennai comprises mostly clay, shale and sandstone. [1] The city is classified into three regions based on geology, sandy areas, clayey areas and hard-rock areas. Sandy areas are found along the river banks and the coasts. Clayey regions cover most of the city. Hard rock areas are Guindy, Velachery, Adambakkam and a part of Saidapet. [2] In sandy areas such as Tiruvanmiyur, Adyar, Kottivakkam, Santhome, George Town, Tondiarpet and the rest of coastal Chennai, rainwater run-off percolates very quickly. In clayey and hard rock areas, rainwater percolates slowly, but it is held by the soil for a longer time. The city's clayey areas include T. Nagar, West Mambalam, Anna Nagar, Perambur and Virugambakkam. The geology of the Chennai city and its surroundings derived from the map of the Geological Survey of India is shown in figure. [3]
Chennai has a dry-summer tropical wet and dry climate which is designated As under the Köppen climate classification. [5] [6] Chennai lies on the thermal equator and is also coastal, which prevents extreme variation in seasonal temperature. For most of the year, the weather is hot and humid. The hottest part of the year is late May and early June, known locally as Agni Nakshatram ("fiery star") or as Kathiri Veyyil, with maximum temperatures around 38–42 °C (100–108 °F ). The highest recorded temperature was 45 °C (113 °F) on 31 May 2003. [7] The coldest time of the year is in December–January, with average temperature of 19–25 °C (66–77 °F) and the lowest recorded temperature of 13.9 °C (57.0 °F) on 11 December 1895 and 29 January 1905. [8]
The average annual rainfall is about 1,400 mm (55 in). The city gets most of its seasonal rainfall from the north-east monsoon winds, from mid-September to mid-December while smaller amounts also come from the south-west monsoon winds from mid-June to mid-September. Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal sometimes hit the city. Highest annual rainfall recorded is 2,570 mm in 2005. [9] The most prevailing winds in Chennai is the Southwesterly between the end of May to end of September and the Northeasterly during the rest of the year.
| Climate data for Chennai (Nungambakkam; rainfall from Chennai Airport) 1991–2020, extremes 1901–2012 | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 34.4 (93.9) | 36.7 (98.1) | 40.6 (105.1) | 42.8 (109.0) | 45.0 (113.0) | 43.3 (109.9) | 41.1 (106.0) | 40.0 (104.0) | 38.9 (102.0) | 39.4 (102.9) | 35.4 (95.7) | 33.0 (91.4) | 45.0 (113.0) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 29.3 (84.7) | 30.9 (87.6) | 32.9 (91.2) | 34.5 (94.1) | 37.1 (98.8) | 37.0 (98.6) | 35.3 (95.5) | 34.7 (94.5) | 34.2 (93.6) | 32.1 (89.8) | 29.9 (85.8) | 28.9 (84.0) | 33.1 (91.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 25.4 (77.7) | 26.8 (80.2) | 29.0 (84.2) | 31.2 (88.2) | 33.0 (91.4) | 32.3 (90.1) | 31.0 (87.8) | 30.2 (86.4) | 29.8 (85.6) | 28.6 (83.5) | 26.9 (80.4) | 25.6 (78.1) | 29.2 (84.5) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 21.2 (70.2) | 22.2 (72.0) | 24.2 (75.6) | 26.6 (79.9) | 28.0 (82.4) | 27.5 (81.5) | 26.4 (79.5) | 25.9 (78.6) | 25.6 (78.1) | 24.6 (76.3) | 23.1 (73.6) | 21.9 (71.4) | 24.8 (76.6) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 13.9 (57.0) | 15.0 (59.0) | 16.7 (62.1) | 20.0 (68.0) | 21.1 (70.0) | 20.6 (69.1) | 21.0 (69.8) | 20.5 (68.9) | 20.6 (69.1) | 16.7 (62.1) | 15.0 (59.0) | 13.9 (57.0) | 13.9 (57.0) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 20.0 (0.79) | 4.7 (0.19) | 3.4 (0.13) | 17.5 (0.69) | 49.7 (1.96) | 75.4 (2.97) | 113.1 (4.45) | 141.4 (5.57) | 143.9 (5.67) | 278.3 (10.96) | 377.3 (14.85) | 183.7 (7.23) | 1,408.4 (55.45) |
| Average rainy days | 1.4 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 1.8 | 4.5 | 6.7 | 8.8 | 7.4 | 10.6 | 11.5 | 5.7 | 60.2 |
| Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) | 67 | 66 | 67 | 70 | 68 | 63 | 65 | 66 | 71 | 76 | 76 | 71 | 69 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 232.5 | 240.1 | 291.4 | 294.0 | 300.7 | 234.0 | 142.6 | 189.1 | 195.0 | 257.3 | 261.0 | 210.8 | 2,848.5 |
| Mean daily sunshine hours | 7.5 | 8.5 | 9.4 | 9.8 | 9.7 | 7.8 | 4.6 | 6.1 | 6.5 | 8.3 | 8.7 | 6.8 | 7.8 |
| Average ultraviolet index | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Source 1: India Meteorological Department [10] [11] [12] [13] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Météo Climat (mean temperature 1991-2020) [14] Weather Atlas [15] | |||||||||||||
Chennai has been ranked 41st best "National Clean Air City" (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India. [16]
Two rivers meander through Chennai, the Cooum River (or Koovam) in the central region and the Adyar River in the southern region. Both rivers are heavily polluted with effluents and trash from domestic and commercial sources. The Adyar, which is much less polluted than the Cooum, is de-silted and cleaned periodically by the state government. A protected estuary of the Adyar forms the natural habitat of several species of birds and animals. The Buckingham Canal, 4 km (2.5 mi) inland, travels parallel to the coast, linking the two rivers. The Otteri Nullah, an east–west stream runs through north Chennai and meets the Buckingham Canal at Basin Bridge. [17] Several lakes of varying size are located on the western fringes of the city. Red Hills, Sholavaram and Chembarambakkam Lake supply Chennai with potable water. Groundwater sources are mostly brackish. A study by the Department of Geology, Anna University, based on a city map of 1893, has revealed that there were nearly 60 large waterbodies in the core of then Madras. [18] The study traced the shrinking and vanished waterbodies through a series of city maps. [19]
Historically, Chennai has faced a problem of water supply shortages as no big river flows through it with a resulting over-reliance on annual monsoon rains to replenish water reservoirs. The city's ground water levels have been depleted to very low levels in many areas. Many residents buy their drinking water. An earlier Veeranam project was unsuccessful in solving the city's water supply shortages, but the New Veeranam project which became operational in September 2004 has greatly reduced dependency on distant sources. [20] In recent years however, due to heavy and consistent monsoon rains and the implementation of rainwater harvesting (RWH) techniques by Chennai Metrowater at their Anna Nagar Rain Centre, water shortages have been reduced significantly, and this has led Chennai to be a model of RWH technology for other cities. [21] Moreover, newer projects like the Telugu Ganga canal project that brings water from water-surplus rivers like the Krishna River in Andhra Pradesh have eased water supply shortages. The city is also constructing sea water desalination plants to further ease water supply shortages.
For administrative purposes Chennai is divided into five talukas; namely Egmore-Nungambakam, Fort Tondiarpet, Mambalam-Guindy, Mylapore-Triplicane and Perambur-Purasawalkkam.
The Chennai Metropolitan area consists of five districts namely Chennai city and the districts of Kanchipuram, Chengalpattu, Thiruvallur and Ranipet. The city area covers an area of 476 km2 (184 sq mi). [22] The metropolitan area covers 1,177 km2 (454 sq mi). The city is divided on the basis of composition into four major parts: North, Central, South and West.
North Chennai is primarily an industrial area. Central Chennai is the commercial heart of the city and the downtown area. South Chennai and West Chennai, previously predominantly residential areas are fast turning into commercial areas, hosting a large number of IT and financial companies. The city is fast expanding along the Old Mahabalipuram Road, GST Road, Sriperumbdur, Koyambedu and Ambattur.
The Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority has drafted a Second Master Plan for Chennai, that aims to develop a satellite townships around the city. Contiguous satellite towns include Mahabalipuram to the south, Chengalpattu and Maraimalai Nagar to the south west, Kanchipuram town, Sriperumpudur, Tiruvallur and Arakkonam to the west.
The climate of Mumbai is tropical, with defined wet and dry seasons. The mean annual temperature is 27.7 °C or 81.9 °F. Average annual rainfall is 2,213.4 millimetres or 87 inches in Colaba, which represents South Mumbai and 2,502.3 millimetres or 99 inches in Santacruz, which represents central and suburban Mumbai. The mean maximum average temperatures is about 32 °C (90 °F) in summer and 30 °C (86 °F) in winter, while the average minimums are 26 °C (79 °F) in summer and 18 °C (64 °F) in winter. The city experiences a lengthy, practically rainless dry season, and a relatively short, but extremely rainy wet season; due to the Southwest Monsoon and orographic influences from the nearby Western Ghats.These conditions effectively place Mumbai between a Tropical monsoon climate (Am) and a Tropical savannah climate (Aw), with more tilt towards the former considering annual precipitation.
Anantapur, officially Anantapuramu, is a city in Anantapur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is the mandal headquarters of Anantapuru mandal and also the divisional headquarters of Anantapur revenue division. The city is located on National Highway. It was also the headquarters of the Datta Mandalam in 1799. It was also a position of strategic importance for the British Indian Army during the Second World War. The GDP of Anantapur City is $ 1.728 Billion.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is the collection and storage of rain, rather than allowing it to run off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit, aquifer, or a reservoir with percolation, so that it seeps down and restores the ground water. Rainwater harvesting differs from stormwater harvesting as the runoff is typically collected from roofs and other area surfaces for storage and subsequent reuse. Its uses include watering gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, and domestic heating. The harvested water can also be committed to longer-term storage or groundwater recharge.
Kanchipuram district is one of the 38 districts in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. The area comprising the present day Kancheepuram district was earlier a part of Chingleput district. The original Chingleput district was split in 1997 into form the present day Kanchiepuram and Tiruvallur districts.
Greater Chennai Corporation (GCC) is a local government for the City of Chennai in the Chennai Metropolitan Area of Tamil Nadu, India. Inaugurated on 29 September 1688, under a royal charter issued by King James II of England on 30 December 1687 as the Corporation of Madras, it is the oldest municipal body of the Commonwealth of Nations outside Great Britain. It is the largest municipal corporation in Tamil Nadu with an area of 426 km2. It is headed by a mayor, who presides over 200 councillors, each of whom represents one of the 200 wards of the city. It is the second oldest corporation in the world after the City of London. The city limits, which had been expanded several times over the years, is currently coterminous with the Chennai district. It is one of the four municipal corporations located within the Chennai Metropolitan Area, the other three being the Tambaram Corporation, Avadi City Municipal Corporation and Kanchipuram Municipal Corporation.
Khargone is a city and administrative headquarters of the Khargone district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The city is located on the bank of the Kunda river and is known for its cotton and chilly production. It is also known for Navgraha Mandir, a temple devoted to the nav grahas. Khargone topped the nation in municipality and received a national award for 'India's Fastest Moving City' under a population of two lakh. Khargone ranked 10th Cleanest city in India in Swachh Survekshan 2020 City ranked the 15th cleanest city in India in Swachh Survekshan 2018 and ranked 17th cleanest city in India in Swachh Survekshan 2017.
Ramagundam is a city under municipal corporation in Peddapalli district of the Indian state of Telangana. It is the most populous city in the district and falls under the Ramagundam revenue division. It is located on the banks of the Godavari River. As of the 2011 census, the city had a population of 229,644, making it the 6th most populous in the state, and an urban agglomeration population of 242,979. It is located about 225 km from the state capital Hyderabad.
Kattumannarkoil is a panchayat town and taluk headquarters in Cuddalore district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Kattumannarkoil Town Panchayat constituted in 1892. The town is coming under the administrative territory of Cuddalore District. The town extends over an area of 19.425 km2. The town is situated along 25 km South West of Chidambaram and lies on the Chidambaram - Coimbatore Highway and 25 km East of Srimushnam and a similar distance north-east of Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The Place is considered as the birthplace of one of the great Vaishnavate Acharya Nathamuni and Yamunacharya. As Lord Vishnu came here as King ‘Mannan’ to hold the hand of Mahalakshmi; and later asked Nathamunigal to share the Divya Prabandham and the Vaishnava Sampradayam to the world at large, he was referred to as ‘ Kattum – Mannan – Aanaar’ and the town later became Kattu Mannar. The place historic name was Veeranarayanapuram.
The climate of West Bengal is varied, with tropical savannahs in the southern portions of the state, to humid subtropical areas in the north. Temperatures vary widely, and there are five distinct seasons. The area is vulnerable to heavy rainfall, monsoons, and cyclones. There are some mountains in the area which are generally cold all year round.
The state of Karnataka in India experiences diverse rainfall quantities across its regions. While Malnad and Coastal Karnataka receive copious amount of rainfall; its north Bayaluseemae region in the Deccan Plateau is one of the most arid regions in the country. Most of the rains received in the state is during the monsoon season. Being an agrarian economy with a large percentage of its citizens engaged in agriculture, the failure of rains can have a crippling effect on the economy of the state. Apart from the benefits in agriculture, the Government of Karnataka has tried to avail other benefits of rainfall using scientific methods. An example of this is the project, Rainwater Harvesting in Rural Karnataka which is initiated by the Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology and is one of the largest rainwater harvesting projects in the world. Agumbe in the Shimoga district, Amagaon in Belgaum District, Hulikal again in Shimoga district and Talakaveri in Madikeri are some of the known places with the highest annual rainfall in South India. Of this Amagaon has received over 10000 mm rain fall twice in 10 years.
Kolkata has a Tropical savanna climate. The annual mean temperature is 26.8 °C (80.2 °F); monthly mean temperatures range from 15 to 30 °C. Summers are hot and humid with temperatures in the low 30's and during dry spells the maximum temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during May and June. Winter tends to last for only about two and a half months, with seasonal lows dipping to 9–11 °C (48–52 °F) between December and January. The highest recorded temperature is 43.9 °C (111.0 °F) and the lowest is 5 °C (41 °F). Often during early summer, dusty squalls followed by spells of thunderstorm and heavy rains lash the city, bringing relief from the humid heat. These thunderstorms are convective in nature, and is locally known as Kal Baisakhi.
Hyderabad is located in central Telangana and is spread over an area of 2,500 km2. The city lies in the Deccan Plateau and rises to an average height of 536 m above the sea level. The city lies at 17.366° N latitude and 78.476° E longitude.
The Adyar River, which originates near the Chembarambakkam Lake in the Kanchipuram district, is one of the three rivers that winds through Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, and joins the Bay of Bengal at the Adyar estuary. The 42.5-kilometre (26.4 mi) long river contributes to the estuarine ecosystem of Chennai. Despite the high pollution levels, boating and fishing take place in this river. The river collects surplus water from about 200 tanks and lakes, small streams and the rainwater drains in the city, with a combined catchment area of 860 square kilometres (331 sq mi). Most of the waste from the city is drained into this river and the Cooum.
Bhilai is a city in Durg district of the Indian state of Chhattisgarh, in eastern central India. Along with its twin-city Durg, the urban agglomeration of Durg-Bhilai Nagar has a population of more than a million, making it the second-largest urban area in Chhattisgarh after Raipur. The Bhilai metropolis contains three municipal corporations: Bhilai Municipal Corporation, Bhilai Charoda Municipal Corporation and Risali Municipal Corporation.
Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board, known shortly as CMWSSB, is a statutory board of Government of Tamil Nadu which provides water supply and sewage treatment to the city of Chennai and its metropolitan region.
The climate of Uttar Pradesh is a tropical monsoon climate, consisting mainly of a humid subtropical climate with dry winter (Cwa). Parts of western Uttar Pradesh consist of a hot semi-arid climate (BSh). The uniformity of the vast Indo-Gangetic Plain covering most of the state causes it to have a predominantly single climate pattern with minor regional variations.
Palam is a major residential colony located in South West Delhi. It is one of 70 Vidhan Sabha constituencies of the Delhi National Capital Territory in northern India.
The Climate of Tamil Nadu, India is generally tropical and features fairly hot temperatures over the year except during the monsoon seasons. The city of Chennai lies on the thermal equator, which means Chennai and Tamil Nadu does not have that much temperature variation.
Water scarcity in India is an ongoing water crisis that affects nearly hundreds of million of people each year. In addition to affecting the huge rural and urban population, the water scarcity in India also extensively affects the ecosystem and agriculture. India has only 4% of the world's fresh water resources despite a population of over 1.4 billion people. In addition to the disproportionate availability of freshwater, water scarcity in India also results from drying up of rivers and their reservoirs in the summer months, right before the onset of the monsoons throughout the country. The crisis has especially worsened in the recent years due to climate change which results in delayed monsoons, consequently drying out reservoirs in several regions. Other factors attributed to the shortage of water in India are a lack of proper infrastructure and government oversight and unchecked water pollution.
The coastal city of Chennai has a metropolitan population of 10.6 million as per 2019 census. As the city lacks a perennial water source, catering the water requirements of the population has remained an arduous task. On 18 June 2019, the city's reservoirs ran dry, leaving the city in severe crisis.
