# Maxwell's equations

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Maxwell's equations are a set of coupled partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, classical optics, and electric circuits. The equations provide a mathematical model for electric, optical, and radio technologies, such as power generation, electric motors, wireless communication, lenses, radar etc. They describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated by charges, currents, and changes of the fields. [note 1] The equations are named after the physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, who, in 1861 and 1862, published an early form of the equations that included the Lorentz force law. Maxwell first used the equations to propose that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.

## Contents

An important consequence of Maxwell's equations is that they demonstrate how fluctuating electric and magnetic fields propagate at a constant speed ( c ) in a vacuum. Known as electromagnetic radiation, these waves may occur at various wavelengths to produce a spectrum of light from radio waves to gamma rays.

The equations have two major variants. The microscopic equations have universal applicability but are unwieldy for common calculations. They relate the electric and magnetic fields to total charge and total current, including the complicated charges and currents in materials at the atomic scale. The macroscopic equations define two new auxiliary fields that describe the large-scale behaviour of matter without having to consider atomic scale charges and quantum phenomena like spins. However, their use requires experimentally determined parameters for a phenomenological description of the electromagnetic response of materials.

The term "Maxwell's equations" is often also used for equivalent alternative formulations. Versions of Maxwell's equations based on the electric and magnetic scalar potentials are preferred for explicitly solving the equations as a boundary value problem, analytical mechanics, or for use in quantum mechanics. The covariant formulation (on spacetime rather than space and time separately) makes the compatibility of Maxwell's equations with special relativity manifest. Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime, commonly used in high energy and gravitational physics, are compatible with general relativity. [note 2] In fact, Albert Einstein developed special and general relativity to accommodate the invariant speed of light, a consequence of Maxwell's equations, with the principle that only relative movement has physical consequences.

The publication of the equations marked the unification of a theory for previously separately described phenomena: magnetism, electricity, light and associated radiation. Since the mid-20th century, it has been understood that Maxwell's equations do not give an exact description of electromagnetic phenomena, but are instead a classical limit of the more precise theory of quantum electrodynamics.

## Conceptual descriptions

### Gauss's law

Gauss's law describes the relationship between a static electric field and electric charges: a static electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges, and the net outflow of the electric field through a closed surface is proportional to the enclosed charge, including bound charge due to polarization of material. The coefficient of the proportion is the permittivity of free space.

### Gauss's law for magnetism

Gauss's law for magnetism states that electric charges have no magnetic analogues, called magnetic monopoles. [1] Instead, the magnetic field of a material is attributed to a dipole, and the net outflow of the magnetic field through a closed surface is zero. Magnetic dipoles may be represented as loops of current or inseparable pairs of equal and opposite 'magnetic charges'. Precisely, the total magnetic flux through a Gaussian surface is zero, and the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field. [note 3]

The Maxwell–Faraday version of Faraday's law of induction describes how a time varying magnetic field creates ("induces") an electric field. [1] In integral form, it states that the work per unit charge required to move a charge around a closed loop equals the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the enclosed surface.

The electromagnetic induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar magnet creates a changing magnetic field, which in turn generates an electric field in a nearby wire.

### Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition

Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition states that magnetic fields can be generated in two ways: by electric current (this was the original "Ampère's law") and by changing electric fields (this was "Maxwell's addition", which he called displacement current). In integral form, the magnetic field induced around any closed loop is proportional to the electric current plus displacement current (proportional to the rate of change of electric flux) through the enclosed surface.

Maxwell's addition to Ampère's law is particularly important: it makes the set of equations mathematically consistent for non static fields, without changing the laws of Ampere and Gauss for static fields. [2] However, as a consequence, it predicts that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field and vice versa. [1] [3] Therefore, these equations allow self-sustaining "electromagnetic waves" to travel through empty space (see electromagnetic wave equation).

The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from experiments on charges and currents, [note 4] matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). Maxwell understood the connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories of electromagnetism and optics.

## Formulation in terms of electric and magnetic fields (microscopic or in vacuum version)

In the electric and magnetic field formulation there are four equations that determine the fields for given charge and current distribution. A separate law of nature, the Lorentz force law, describes how, conversely, the electric and magnetic fields act on charged particles and currents. A version of this law was included in the original equations by Maxwell but, by convention, is included no longer. The vector calculus formalism below, the work of Oliver Heaviside, [4] [5] has become standard. It is manifestly rotation invariant, and therefore mathematically much more transparent than Maxwell's original 20 equations in x,y,z components. The relativistic formulations are even more symmetric and manifestly Lorentz invariant. For the same equations expressed using tensor calculus or differential forms, see alternative formulations.

The differential and integral formulations are mathematically equivalent and are both useful. The integral formulation relates fields within a region of space to fields on the boundary and can often be used to simplify and directly calculate fields from symmetric distributions of charges and currents. On the other hand, the differential equations are purely local and are a more natural starting point for calculating the fields in more complicated (less symmetric) situations, for example using finite element analysis. [6]

### Key to the notation

Symbols in bold represent vector quantities, and symbols in italics represent scalar quantities, unless otherwise indicated. The equations introduce the electric field, E, a vector field, and the magnetic field, B, a pseudovector field, each generally having a time and location dependence. The sources are

The universal constants appearing in the equations (the first two ones explicitly only in the SI units formulation) are:

#### Differential equations

In the differential equations,

• the nabla symbol, , denotes the three-dimensional gradient operator, del,
• the ∇⋅ symbol (pronounced "del dot") denotes the divergence operator,
• the ∇× symbol (pronounced "del cross") denotes the curl operator.

#### Integral equations

In the integral equations,

• Ω is any fixed volume with closed boundary surface ∂Ω, and
• Σ is any fixed surface with closed boundary curve ∂Σ,

Here a fixed volume or surface means that it does not change over time. The equations are correct, complete, and a little easier to interpret with time-independent surfaces. For example, since the surface is time-independent, we can bring the differentiation under the integral sign in Faraday's law:

${\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\iint _{\Sigma }{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}\cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} \,,}$

Maxwell's equations can be formulated with possibly time-dependent surfaces and volumes by using the differential version and using Gauss and Stokes formula appropriately.

• ${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$ is a surface integral over the boundary surface ∂Ω, with the loop indicating the surface is closed
• ${\displaystyle \iiint _{\Omega }}$ is a volume integral over the volume Ω,
• ${\displaystyle \oint _{\partial \Sigma }}$ is a line integral around the boundary curve ∂Σ, with the loop indicating the curve is closed.
• ${\displaystyle \iint _{\Sigma }}$ is a surface integral over the surface Σ,
• The total electric charge Q enclosed in Ω is the volume integral over Ω of the charge density ρ (see the "macroscopic formulation" section below):
${\displaystyle Q=\iiint _{\Omega }\rho \ \mathrm {d} V,}$
where dV is the volume element.
${\displaystyle I=\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} ,}$
where dS denotes the differential vector element of surface area S, normal to surface Σ. (Vector area is sometimes denoted by A rather than S, but this conflicts with the notation for magnetic vector potential).

### Formulation in SI units convention

Name Integral equations Differential equations
Gauss's law ${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} ={\frac {1}{\varepsilon _{0}}}\iiint _{\Omega }\rho \,\mathrm {d} V}$${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}}$
Gauss's law for magnetism ${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =0}$${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}$
Maxwell–Faraday equation ${\displaystyle \oint _{\partial \Sigma }\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\ell }}=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} }$${\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}$
Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's addition){\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\oint _{\partial \Sigma }&\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\ell }}=\mu _{0}\left(\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} +\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} \right)\\\end{aligned}}}${\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\left(\mathbf {J} +\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}\right)}$

### Formulation in Gaussian units convention

The definitions of charge, electric field, and magnetic field can be altered to simplify theoretical calculation, by absorbing dimensioned factors of ε0 and μ0 into the units of calculation, by convention. With a corresponding change in convention for the Lorentz force law this yields the same physics, i.e. trajectories of charged particles, or work done by an electric motor. These definitions are often preferred in theoretical and high energy physics where it is natural to take the electric and magnetic field with the same units, to simplify the appearance of the electromagnetic tensor: the Lorentz covariant object unifying electric and magnetic field would then contain components with uniform unit and dimension. [7] :vii Such modified definitions are conventionally used with the Gaussian (CGS) units. Using these definitions and conventions, colloquially "in Gaussian units", [8] the Maxwell equations become: [9]

NameIntegral equationsDifferential equations
Gauss's law ${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =4\pi \iiint _{\Omega }\rho \,\mathrm {d} V}$${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} =4\pi \rho }$
Gauss's law for magnetism ${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =0}$${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}$
Maxwell–Faraday equation ${\displaystyle \oint _{\partial \Sigma }\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\ell }}=-{\frac {1}{c}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} }$${\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {1}{c}}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}$
Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's addition){\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\oint _{\partial \Sigma }&\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\ell }}={\frac {1}{c}}\left(4\pi \iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} +{\frac {\mathrel {\mathrm {d} }}{\mathrm {d} t}}\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} \right)\end{aligned}}}${\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} ={\frac {1}{c}}\left(4\pi \mathbf {J} +{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}\right)}$

The equations are particularly readable when length and time are measured in compatible units like seconds and lightseconds i.e. in units such that c = 1 unit of length/unit of time. Ever since 1983 (see International System of Units), metres and seconds are compatible except for historical legacy since by definition c = 299 792 458 m/s (≈ 1.0 feet/nanosecond).

Further cosmetic changes, called rationalisations, are possible by absorbing factors of 4π depending on whether we want Coulomb's law or Gauss's law to come out nicely, see Lorentz–Heaviside units (used mainly in particle physics).

## Relationship between differential and integral formulations

The equivalence of the differential and integral formulations are a consequence of the Gauss divergence theorem and the Kelvin–Stokes theorem.

### Flux and divergence

According to the (purely mathematical) Gauss divergence theorem, the electric flux through the boundary surface ∂Ω can be rewritten as

${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\iiint _{\Omega }\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} \,\mathrm {d} V}$

The integral version of Gauss's equation can thus be rewritten as

${\displaystyle \iiint _{\Omega }\left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} -{\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\right)\,\mathrm {d} V=0}$

Since Ω is arbitrary (e.g. an arbitrary small ball with arbitrary center), this is satisfied if and only if the integrand is zero everywhere. This is the differential equations formulation of Gauss equation up to a trivial rearrangement.

Similarly rewriting the magnetic flux in Gauss's law for magnetism in integral form gives

${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\iiint _{\Omega }\nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} \,\mathrm {d} V=0}$.

which is satisfied for all Ω if and only if ${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}$ everywhere.

### Circulation and curl

By the Kelvin–Stokes theorem we can rewrite the line integrals of the fields around the closed boundary curve ∂Σ to an integral of the "circulation of the fields" (i.e. their curls) over a surface it bounds, i.e.

${\displaystyle \oint _{\partial \Sigma }\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\ell }}=\iint _{\Sigma }(\nabla \times \mathbf {B} )\cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} }$,

Hence the modified Ampere law in integral form can be rewritten as

${\displaystyle \iint _{\Sigma }\left(\nabla \times \mathbf {B} -\mu _{0}\left(\mathbf {J} +\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}\right)\right)\cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =0}$.

Since Σ can be chosen arbitrarily, e.g. as an arbitrary small, arbitrary oriented, and arbitrary centered disk, we conclude that the integrand is zero iff Ampere's modified law in differential equations form is satisfied. The equivalence of Faraday's law in differential and integral form follows likewise.

The line integrals and curls are analogous to quantities in classical fluid dynamics: the circulation of a fluid is the line integral of the fluid's flow velocity field around a closed loop, and the vorticity of the fluid is the curl of the velocity field.

## Charge conservation

The invariance of charge can be derived as a corollary of Maxwell's equations. The left-hand side of the modified Ampere's Law has zero divergence by the div–curl identity. Expanding the divergence of the right-hand side, interchanging derivatives, and applying Gauss's law gives:

${\displaystyle 0=\nabla \cdot \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} +\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} \right)=\mu _{0}\left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} +{\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}\right)}$

i.e.

${\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}+\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} =0}$.

By the Gauss Divergence Theorem, this means the rate of change of charge in a fixed volume equals the net current flowing through the boundary:

${\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}Q_{\Omega }={\frac {d}{dt}}\iiint _{\Omega }\rho \mathrm {d} V=-}$${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \cdot {\rm {d}}\mathbf {S} =-I_{\partial \Omega }.}$

In particular, in an isolated system the total charge is conserved.

## Vacuum equations, electromagnetic waves and speed of light

In a region with no charges (ρ = 0) and no currents (J = 0), such as in a vacuum, Maxwell's equations reduce to:

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} &=0\quad &\nabla \times \mathbf {E} &=-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}},\\\nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} &=0\quad &\nabla \times \mathbf {B} &=\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}.\end{aligned}}}

Taking the curl (∇×) of the curl equations, and using the curl of the curl identity we obtain

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {E} }{\partial t^{2}}}-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} =0\\\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {B} }{\partial t^{2}}}-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {B} =0\end{aligned}}}

The quantity ${\displaystyle \mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}}$ has the dimension of (time/length)2. Defining ${\displaystyle c=(\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0})^{-1/2}}$, the equations above have the form of the standard wave equations

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {E} }{\partial t^{2}}}-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} =0\\{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {B} }{\partial t^{2}}}-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {B} =0\end{aligned}}}

Already during Maxwell's lifetime, it was found that the known values for ${\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}}$ and ${\displaystyle \mu _{0}}$ give ${\displaystyle c\approx 2.998\times 10^{8}\,{\text{m/s}}}$, then already known to be the speed of light in free space. This led him to propose that light and radio waves were propagating electromagnetic waves, since amply confirmed. In the old SI system of units, the values of ${\displaystyle \mu _{0}=4\pi \times 10^{-7}}$ and ${\displaystyle c=299792458\,{\text{m/s}}}$ are defined constants, (which means that by definition ${\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}=8.854...\times 10^{-12}\,{\text{F/m}}}$) that define the ampere and the metre. In the new SI system, only c keeps its defined value, and the electron charge gets a defined value.

In materials with relative permittivity, εr, and relative permeability, μr, the phase velocity of light becomes

${\displaystyle v_{\text{p}}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {\mu _{0}\mu _{\text{r}}\varepsilon _{0}\varepsilon _{\text{r}}}}}}$

which is usually [note 5] less than c.

In addition, E and B are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation, and are in phase with each other. A sinusoidal plane wave is one special solution of these equations. Maxwell's equations explain how these waves can physically propagate through space. The changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field through Faraday's law. In turn, that electric field creates a changing magnetic field through Maxwell's addition to Ampère's law. This perpetual cycle allows these waves, now known as electromagnetic radiation, to move through space at velocity c.

## Macroscopic formulation

The above equations are the microscopic version of Maxwell's equations, expressing the electric and the magnetic fields in terms of the (possibly atomic-level) charges and currents present. This is sometimes called the "general" form, but the macroscopic version below is equally general, the difference being one of bookkeeping.

The microscopic version is sometimes called "Maxwell's equations in a vacuum": this refers to the fact that the material medium is not built into the structure of the equations, but appears only in the charge and current terms. The microscopic version was introduced by Lorentz, who tried to use it to derive the macroscopic properties of bulk matter from its microscopic constituents. [10] :5

"Maxwell's macroscopic equations", also known as Maxwell's equations in matter, are more similar to those that Maxwell introduced himself.

Name Integral equations (SI convention) Differential equations (SI convention)Differential equations (Gaussian convention)
Gauss's law${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {D} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\iiint _{\Omega }\rho _{\text{f}}\,\mathrm {d} V}$${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {D} =\rho _{\text{f}}}$${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {D} =4\pi \rho _{\text{f}}}$
Gauss's law for magnetism${\displaystyle {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }}$${\displaystyle \mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =0}$${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}$${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}$
Maxwell–Faraday equation (Faraday's law of induction)${\displaystyle \oint _{\partial \Sigma }\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\ell }}=-{\frac {d}{dt}}\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} }$${\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}$${\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {1}{c}}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}$
Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's addition){\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\oint _{\partial \Sigma }&\mathbf {H} \cdot \mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\ell }}=\\&\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {J} _{\text{f}}\cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} +{\frac {d}{dt}}\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {D} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} \\\end{aligned}}}${\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {H} =\mathbf {J} _{\text{f}}+{\frac {\partial \mathbf {D} }{\partial t}}}$${\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {H} ={\frac {1}{c}}\left(4\pi \mathbf {J} _{\text{f}}+{\frac {\partial \mathbf {D} }{\partial t}}\right)}$

In the macroscopic equations, the influence of bound charge Qb and bound current Ib is incorporated into the displacement field D and the magnetizing field H, while the equations depend only on the free charges Qf and free currents If. This reflects a splitting of the total electric charge Q and current I (and their densities ρ and J) into free and bound parts:

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}Q&=Q_{\text{f}}+Q_{\text{b}}=\iiint _{\Omega }\left(\rho _{\text{f}}+\rho _{\text{b}}\right)\,\mathrm {d} V=\iiint _{\Omega }\rho \,\mathrm {d} V\\I&=I_{\text{f}}+I_{\text{b}}=\iint _{\Sigma }\left(\mathbf {J} _{\text{f}}+\mathbf {J} _{\text{b}}\right)\cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\iint _{\Sigma }\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} \end{aligned}}}

The cost of this splitting is that the additional fields D and H need to be determined through phenomenological constituent equations relating these fields to the electric field E and the magnetic field B, together with the bound charge and current.

See below for a detailed description of the differences between the microscopic equations, dealing with total charge and current including material contributions, useful in air/vacuum; [note 6] and the macroscopic equations, dealing with free charge and current, practical to use within materials.

### Bound charge and current

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material its molecules respond by forming microscopic electric dipoles – their atomic nuclei move a tiny distance in the direction of the field, while their electrons move a tiny distance in the opposite direction. This produces a macroscopicbound charge in the material even though all of the charges involved are bound to individual molecules. For example, if every molecule responds the same, similar to that shown in the figure, these tiny movements of charge combine to produce a layer of positive bound charge on one side of the material and a layer of negative charge on the other side. The bound charge is most conveniently described in terms of the polarization P of the material, its dipole moment per unit volume. If P is uniform, a macroscopic separation of charge is produced only at the surfaces where P enters and leaves the material. For non-uniform P, a charge is also produced in the bulk. [11]

Somewhat similarly, in all materials the constituent atoms exhibit magnetic moments that are intrinsically linked to the angular momentum of the components of the atoms, most notably their electrons. The connection to angular momentum suggests the picture of an assembly of microscopic current loops. Outside the material, an assembly of such microscopic current loops is not different from a macroscopic current circulating around the material's surface, despite the fact that no individual charge is traveling a large distance. These bound currents can be described using the magnetization M. [12]

The very complicated and granular bound charges and bound currents, therefore, can be represented on the macroscopic scale in terms of P and M, which average these charges and currents on a sufficiently large scale so as not to see the granularity of individual atoms, but also sufficiently small that they vary with location in the material. As such, Maxwell's macroscopic equations ignore many details on a fine scale that can be unimportant to understanding matters on a gross scale by calculating fields that are averaged over some suitable volume.

### Auxiliary fields, polarization and magnetization

The definitions of the auxiliary fields are:

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {D} (\mathbf {r} ,t)&=\varepsilon _{0}\mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} ,t)+\mathbf {P} (\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\mathbf {H} (\mathbf {r} ,t)&={\frac {1}{\mu _{0}}}\mathbf {B} (\mathbf {r} ,t)-\mathbf {M} (\mathbf {r} ,t)\end{aligned}}}

where P is the polarization field and M is the magnetization field, which are defined in terms of microscopic bound charges and bound currents respectively. The macroscopic bound charge density ρb and bound current density Jb in terms of polarization P and magnetization M are then defined as

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\rho _{\text{b}}&=-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {P} \\\mathbf {J} _{\text{b}}&=\nabla \times \mathbf {M} +{\frac {\partial \mathbf {P} }{\partial t}}\end{aligned}}}

If we define the total, bound, and free charge and current density by

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\rho &=\rho _{\text{b}}+\rho _{\text{f}},\\\mathbf {J} &=\mathbf {J} _{\text{b}}+\mathbf {J} _{\text{f}},\end{aligned}}}

and use the defining relations above to eliminate D, and H, the "macroscopic" Maxwell's equations reproduce the "microscopic" equations.

### Constitutive relations

In order to apply 'Maxwell's macroscopic equations', it is necessary to specify the relations between displacement field D and the electric field E, as well as the magnetizing field H and the magnetic field B. Equivalently, we have to specify the dependence of the polarization P (hence the bound charge) and the magnetization M (hence the bound current) on the applied electric and magnetic field. The equations specifying this response are called constitutive relations. For real-world materials, the constitutive relations are rarely simple, except approximately, and usually determined by experiment. See the main article on constitutive relations for a fuller description. [13] :44–45

For materials without polarization and magnetization, the constitutive relations are (by definition) [7] :2

${\displaystyle \mathbf {D} =\varepsilon _{0}\mathbf {E} ,\quad \mathbf {H} ={\frac {1}{\mu _{0}}}\mathbf {B} }$

where ε0 is the permittivity of free space and μ0 the permeability of free space. Since there is no bound charge, the total and the free charge and current are equal.

An alternative viewpoint on the microscopic equations is that they are the macroscopic equations together with the statement that vacuum behaves like a perfect linear "material" without additional polarization and magnetization. More generally, for linear materials the constitutive relations are [13] :44–45

${\displaystyle \mathbf {D} =\varepsilon \mathbf {E} \,,\quad \mathbf {H} ={\frac {1}{\mu }}\mathbf {B} }$

where ε is the permittivity and μ the permeability of the material. For the displacement field D the linear approximation is usually excellent because for all but the most extreme electric fields or temperatures obtainable in the laboratory (high power pulsed lasers) the interatomic electric fields of materials of the order of 1011 V/m are much higher than the external field. For the magnetizing field ${\displaystyle \mathbf {H} }$, however, the linear approximation can break down in common materials like iron leading to phenomena like hysteresis. Even the linear case can have various complications, however.

• For homogeneous materials, ε and μ are constant throughout the material, while for inhomogeneous materials they depend on location within the material (and perhaps time). [14] :463
• For isotropic materials, ε and μ are scalars, while for anisotropic materials (e.g. due to crystal structure) they are tensors. [13] :421 [14] :463
• Materials are generally dispersive, so ε and μ depend on the frequency of any incident EM waves. [13] :625 [14] :397

Even more generally, in the case of non-linear materials (see for example nonlinear optics), D and P are not necessarily proportional to E, similarly H or M is not necessarily proportional to B. In general D and H depend on both E and B, on location and time, and possibly other physical quantities.

In applications one also has to describe how the free currents and charge density behave in terms of E and B possibly coupled to other physical quantities like pressure, and the mass, number density, and velocity of charge-carrying particles. E.g., the original equations given by Maxwell (see History of Maxwell's equations) included Ohm's law in the form

${\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{\text{f}}=\sigma \mathbf {E} \,.}$

## Alternative formulations

Following is a summary of some of the numerous other mathematical formalisms to write the microscopic Maxwell's equations, with the columns separating the two homogeneous Maxwell equations from the two inhomogeneous ones involving charge and current. Each formulation has versions directly in terms of the electric and magnetic fields, and indirectly in terms of the electrical potential φ and the vector potential A. Potentials were introduced as a convenient way to solve the homogeneous equations, but it was thought that all observable physics was contained in the electric and magnetic fields (or relativistically, the Faraday tensor). The potentials play a central role in quantum mechanics, however, and act quantum mechanically with observable consequences even when the electric and magnetic fields vanish (Aharonov–Bohm effect).

Each table describes one formalism. See the main article for details of each formulation. SI units are used throughout.

Vector calculus
FormulationHomogeneous equationsInhomogeneous equations
Fields

3D Euclidean space + time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \times \mathbf {E} +{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}=0\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} &={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \times \mathbf {B} -{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}&=\mu _{0}\mathbf {J} \end{aligned}}}

Potentials (any gauge)

3D Euclidean space + time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {B} &=\mathbf {\nabla } \times \mathbf {A} \end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {E} &=-\mathbf {\nabla } \varphi -{\frac {\partial \mathbf {A} }{\partial t}}\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}-\nabla ^{2}\varphi -{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\left(\mathbf {\nabla } \cdot \mathbf {A} \right)&={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left(-\nabla ^{2}+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}\right)\mathbf {A} +\mathbf {\nabla } \left(\mathbf {\nabla } \cdot \mathbf {A} +{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial \varphi }{\partial t}}\right)&=\mu _{0}\mathbf {J} \end{aligned}}}

Potentials (Lorenz gauge)

3D Euclidean space + time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {B} &=\mathbf {\nabla } \times \mathbf {A} \\\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {E} &=-\mathbf {\nabla } \varphi -{\frac {\partial \mathbf {A} }{\partial t}}\\\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {\nabla } \cdot \mathbf {A} &=-{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial \varphi }{\partial t}}\\\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left(-\nabla ^{2}+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}\right)\varphi &={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left(-\nabla ^{2}+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}\right)\mathbf {A} &=\mu _{0}\mathbf {J} \end{aligned}}}

Tensor calculus
FormulationHomogeneous equationsInhomogeneous equations
Fields

space + time

spatial metric independent of time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\partial _{[i}B_{jk]}&=\\\nabla _{[i}B_{jk]}&=0\\\partial _{[i}E_{j]}+{\frac {\partial B_{ij}}{\partial t}}&=\\\nabla _{[i}E_{j]}+{\frac {\partial B_{ij}}{\partial t}}&=0\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {1}{\sqrt {h}}}\partial _{i}{\sqrt {h}}E^{i}&=\\\nabla _{i}E^{i}&={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\\-{\frac {1}{\sqrt {h}}}\partial _{i}{\sqrt {h}}B^{ij}-{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}E^{j}&=&\\-\nabla _{i}B^{ij}-{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial E^{j}}{\partial t}}&=\mu _{0}J^{j}\\\end{aligned}}}
Potentials

space (with topological restrictions) + time

spatial metric independent of time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B_{ij}&=\partial _{[i}A_{j]}\\&=\nabla _{[i}A_{j]}\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}E_{i}&=-{\frac {\partial A_{i}}{\partial t}}-\partial _{i}\varphi \\&=-{\frac {\partial A_{i}}{\partial t}}-\nabla _{i}\varphi \\\end{aligned}}}

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}-{\frac {1}{\sqrt {h}}}\partial _{i}{\sqrt {h}}\left(\partial ^{i}\varphi +{\frac {\partial A^{i}}{\partial t}}\right)&=\\-\nabla _{i}\nabla ^{i}\varphi -{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\nabla _{i}A^{i}&={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\\-{\frac {1}{\sqrt {h}}}\partial _{i}\left({\sqrt {h}}h^{im}h^{jn}\partial _{[m}A_{n]}\right)+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\left({\frac {\partial A^{j}}{\partial t}}+\partial ^{j}\varphi \right)&=\\-\nabla _{i}\nabla ^{i}A^{j}+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}A^{j}}{\partial t^{2}}}+R_{i}^{j}A^{i}+\nabla ^{j}\left(\nabla _{i}A^{i}+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial \varphi }{\partial t}}\right)&=\mu _{0}J^{j}\\\end{aligned}}}
Potentials (Lorenz gauge)

space (with topological restrictions) + time

spatial metric independent of time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B_{ij}&=\partial _{[i}A_{j]}\\&=\nabla _{[i}A_{j]}\\E_{i}&=-{\frac {\partial A_{i}}{\partial t}}-\partial _{i}\varphi \\&=-{\frac {\partial A_{i}}{\partial t}}-\nabla _{i}\varphi \\\nabla _{i}A^{i}&=-{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial \varphi }{\partial t}}\\\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}-\nabla _{i}\nabla ^{i}\varphi +{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\varphi }{\partial t^{2}}}&={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\\-\nabla _{i}\nabla ^{i}A^{j}+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}A^{j}}{\partial t^{2}}}+R_{i}^{j}A^{i}&=\mu _{0}J^{j}\\\end{aligned}}}
Differential forms
FormulationHomogeneous equationsInhomogeneous equations
Fields

Any space + time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}dB&=0\\dE+{\frac {\partial B}{\partial t}}&=0\\\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}d{\star }E={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\\d{\star }B-{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial {\star }E}{\partial t}}={\mu _{0}}J\\\end{aligned}}}
Potentials (any gauge)

Any space (with topological restrictions) + time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B&=dA\\E&=-d\varphi -{\frac {\partial A}{\partial t}}\\\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}-d{\star }\!\left(d\varphi +{\frac {\partial A}{\partial t}}\right)&={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\\d{\star }dA+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}{\star }\!\left(d\varphi +{\frac {\partial A}{\partial t}}\right)&=\mu _{0}J\\\end{aligned}}}
Potential (Lorenz Gauge)

Any space (with topological restrictions) + time

spatial metric independent of time

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}B&=dA\\E&=-d\varphi -{\frac {\partial A}{\partial t}}\\d{\star }A&=-{\star }{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial \varphi }{\partial t}}\\\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\star }\!\left(-\Delta \varphi +{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}\varphi \right)&={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}\\{\star }\!\left(-\Delta A+{\frac {1}{c^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}A}{\partial ^{2}t}}\right)&=\mu _{0}J\\\end{aligned}}}

## Relativistic formulations

The Maxwell equations can also be formulated on a spacetime-like Minkowski space where space and time are treated on equal footing. The direct spacetime formulations make manifest that the Maxwell equations are relativistically invariant. Because of this symmetry electric and magnetic field are treated on equal footing and are recognised as components of the Faraday tensor. This reduces the four Maxwell equations to two, which simplifies the equations, although we can no longer use the familiar vector formulation. In fact the Maxwell equations in the space + time formulation are not Galileo invariant and have Lorentz invariance as a hidden symmetry. This was a major source of inspiration for the development of relativity theory. Indeed, even the formulation that treats space and time separately is not a non-relativistic approximation and describes the same physics by simply renaming variables. For this reason the relativistic invariant equations are usually called the Maxwell equations as well.

Each table describes one formalism.

Tensor calculus
FormulationHomogeneous equationsInhomogeneous equations
Fields ${\displaystyle \partial _{[\alpha }F_{\beta \gamma ]}=0}$${\displaystyle \partial _{\alpha }F^{\alpha \beta }=\mu _{0}J^{\beta }}$
Potentials (any gauge) ${\displaystyle F_{\alpha \beta }=2\partial _{[\alpha }A_{\beta ]}}$${\displaystyle 2\partial _{\alpha }\partial ^{[\alpha }A^{\beta ]}=\mu _{0}J^{\beta }}$
Potentials (Lorenz gauge) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}F_{\alpha \beta }&=2\partial _{[\alpha }A_{\beta ]}\\\partial _{\alpha }A^{\alpha }&=0\end{aligned}}}${\displaystyle \partial _{\alpha }\partial ^{\alpha }A^{\beta }=\mu _{0}J^{\beta }}$
Fields

Any spacetime

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\partial _{[\alpha }F_{\beta \gamma ]}&=\\\nabla _{[\alpha }F_{\beta \gamma ]}&=0\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {1}{\sqrt {-g}}}\partial _{\alpha }({\sqrt {-g}}F^{\alpha \beta })&=\\\nabla _{\alpha }F^{\alpha \beta }&=\mu _{0}J^{\beta }\end{aligned}}}
Potentials (any gauge)

Any spacetime (with topological restrictions)

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}F_{\alpha \beta }&=2\partial _{[\alpha }A_{\beta ]}\\&=2\nabla _{[\alpha }A_{\beta ]}\end{aligned}}}{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {2}{\sqrt {-g}}}\partial _{\alpha }({\sqrt {-g}}g^{\alpha \mu }g^{\beta \nu }\partial _{[\mu }A_{\nu ]})&=\\2\nabla _{\alpha }(\nabla ^{[\alpha }A^{\beta ]})&=\mu _{0}J^{\beta }\end{aligned}}}
Potentials (Lorenz gauge)

Any spacetime (with topological restrictions)

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}F_{\alpha \beta }&=2\partial _{[\alpha }A_{\beta ]}\\&=2\nabla _{[\alpha }A_{\beta ]}\\\nabla _{\alpha }A^{\alpha }&=0\end{aligned}}}${\displaystyle \nabla _{\alpha }\nabla ^{\alpha }A^{\beta }-R^{\beta }{}_{\alpha }A^{\alpha }=\mu _{0}J^{\beta }}$
Differential forms
FormulationHomogeneous equationsInhomogeneous equations
Fields

Any spacetime

${\displaystyle \mathrm {d} F=0}$${\displaystyle \mathrm {d} {\star }F=\mu _{0}J}$
Potentials (any gauge)

Any spacetime (with topological restrictions)

${\displaystyle F=\mathrm {d} A}$${\displaystyle \mathrm {d} {\star }\mathrm {d} A=\mu _{0}J}$
Potentials (Lorenz gauge)

Any spacetime (with topological restrictions)

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}F&=\mathrm {d} A\\\mathrm {d} {\star }A&=0\end{aligned}}}${\displaystyle {\star }\Box A=\mu _{0}J}$
• In the tensor calculus formulation, the electromagnetic tensor Fαβ is an antisymmetric covariant order 2 tensor; the four-potential, Aα, is a covariant vector; the current, Jα, is a vector; the square brackets, [ ], denote antisymmetrization of indices; α is the derivative with respect to the coordinate, xα. In Minkowski space coordinates are chosen with respect to an inertial frame; (xα) = (ct,x,y,z), so that the metric tensor used to raise and lower indices is ηαβ = diag(1,−1,−1,−1). The d'Alembert operator on Minkowski space is ◻ = ∂αα as in the vector formulation. In general spacetimes, the coordinate system xα is arbitrary, the covariant derivative α, the Ricci tensor, Rαβ and raising and lowering of indices are defined by the Lorentzian metric, gαβ and the d'Alembert operator is defined as ◻ = ∇αα. The topological restriction is that the second real cohomology group of the space vanishes (see the differential form formulation for an explanation). This is violated for Minkowski space with a line removed, which can model a (flat) spacetime with a point-like monopole on the complement of the line.
• In the differential form formulation on arbitrary space times, F = 1/2Fαβdxα ∧ dxβ is the electromagnetic tensor considered as a 2-form, A = Aαdxα is the potential 1-form, ${\displaystyle J=-J_{\alpha }{\star }\mathrm {d} x^{\alpha }}$ is the current 3-form, d is the exterior derivative, and ${\displaystyle {\star }}$ is the Hodge star on forms defined (up to its orientation, i.e. its sign) by the Lorentzian metric of spacetime. In the special case of 2-forms such as F, the Hodge star ${\displaystyle {\star }}$ depends on the metric tensor only for its local scale. This means that, as formulated, the differential form field equations are conformally invariant, but the Lorenz gauge condition breaks conformal invariance. The operator ${\displaystyle \Box =(-{\star }\mathrm {d} {\star }\mathrm {d} -\mathrm {d} {\star }\mathrm {d} {\star })}$ is the d'Alembert–Laplace–Beltrami operator on 1-forms on an arbitrary Lorentzian spacetime. The topological condition is again that the second real cohomology group is 'trivial' (meaning that its form follows from a definition). By the isomorphism with the second de Rham cohomology this condition means that every closed 2-form is exact.

Other formalisms include the geometric algebra formulation and a matrix representation of Maxwell's equations. Historically, a quaternionic formulation [15] [16] was used.

## Solutions

Maxwell's equations are partial differential equations that relate the electric and magnetic fields to each other and to the electric charges and currents. Often, the charges and currents are themselves dependent on the electric and magnetic fields via the Lorentz force equation and the constitutive relations. These all form a set of coupled partial differential equations which are often very difficult to solve: the solutions encompass all the diverse phenomena of classical electromagnetism. Some general remarks follow.

As for any differential equation, boundary conditions [17] [18] [19] and initial conditions [20] are necessary for a unique solution. For example, even with no charges and no currents anywhere in spacetime, there are the obvious solutions for which E and B are zero or constant, but there are also non-trivial solutions corresponding to electromagnetic waves. In some cases, Maxwell's equations are solved over the whole of space, and boundary conditions are given as asymptotic limits at infinity. [21] In other cases, Maxwell's equations are solved in a finite region of space, with appropriate conditions on the boundary of that region, for example an artificial absorbing boundary representing the rest of the universe, [22] [23] or periodic boundary conditions, or walls that isolate a small region from the outside world (as with a waveguide or cavity resonator). [24]

Jefimenko's equations (or the closely related Liénard–Wiechert potentials) are the explicit solution to Maxwell's equations for the electric and magnetic fields created by any given distribution of charges and currents. It assumes specific initial conditions to obtain the so-called "retarded solution", where the only fields present are the ones created by the charges. However, Jefimenko's equations are unhelpful in situations when the charges and currents are themselves affected by the fields they create.

Numerical methods for differential equations can be used to compute approximate solutions of Maxwell's equations when exact solutions are impossible. These include the finite element method and finite-difference time-domain method. [17] [19] [25] [26] [27] For more details, see Computational electromagnetics.

## Overdetermination of Maxwell's equations

Maxwell's equations seem overdetermined, in that they involve six unknowns (the three components of E and B) but eight equations (one for each of the two Gauss's laws, three vector components each for Faraday's and Ampere's laws). (The currents and charges are not unknowns, being freely specifiable subject to charge conservation.) This is related to a certain limited kind of redundancy in Maxwell's equations: It can be proven that any system satisfying Faraday's law and Ampere's law automatically also satisfies the two Gauss's laws, as long as the system's initial condition does, and assuming conservation of charge and the nonexistence of magnetic monopoles. [28] [29] This explanation was first introduced by Julius Adams Stratton in 1941. [30]

Although it is possible to simply ignore the two Gauss's laws in a numerical algorithm (apart from the initial conditions), the imperfect precision of the calculations can lead to ever-increasing violations of those laws. By introducing dummy variables characterizing these violations, the four equations become not overdetermined after all. The resulting formulation can lead to more accurate algorithms that take all four laws into account. [31]

Both identities ${\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \nabla \times \mathbf {B} \equiv 0,\nabla \cdot \nabla \times \mathbf {E} \equiv 0}$, which reduce eight equations to six independent ones, are the true reason of overdetermination. [32] [33] Or definitions of linear dependence for PDE can be referred.

Equivalently, the overdetermination can be viewed as implying conservation of electric and magnetic charge, as they are required in the derivation described above but implied by the two Gauss's laws.

For linear algebraic equations, one can make 'nice' rules to rewrite the equations and unknowns. The equations can be linearly dependent. But in differential equations, and especially PDEs, one needs appropriate boundary conditions, which depend in not so obvious ways on the equations. Even more, if one rewrites them in terms of vector and scalar potential, then the equations are underdetermined because of Gauge fixing.

## Maxwell's equations as the classical limit of QED

Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law (along with the rest of classical electromagnetism) are extraordinarily successful at explaining and predicting a variety of phenomena. However they do not account for quantum effects and so their domain of applicability is limited. Maxwell's equations are thought of as the classical limit of quantum electrodynamics (QED).

Some observed electromagnetic phenomena are incompatible with Maxwell's equations. These include photon–photon scattering and many other phenomena related to photons or virtual photons, "nonclassical light" and quantum entanglement of electromagnetic fields (see quantum optics). E.g. quantum cryptography cannot be described by Maxwell theory, not even approximately. The approximate nature of Maxwell's equations becomes more and more apparent when going into the extremely strong field regime (see Euler–Heisenberg Lagrangian) or to extremely small distances.

Finally, Maxwell's equations cannot explain any phenomenon involving individual photons interacting with quantum matter, such as the photoelectric effect, Planck's law, the Duane–Hunt law, and single-photon light detectors. However, many such phenomena may be approximated using a halfway theory of quantum matter coupled to a classical electromagnetic field, either as external field or with the expected value of the charge current and density on the right hand side of Maxwell's equations.

## Variations

Popular variations on the Maxwell equations as a classical theory of electromagnetic fields are relatively scarce because the standard equations have stood the test of time remarkably well.

### Magnetic monopoles

Maxwell's equations posit that there is electric charge, but no magnetic charge (also called magnetic monopoles), in the universe. Indeed, magnetic charge has never been observed, despite extensive searches, [note 7] and may not exist. If they did exist, both Gauss's law for magnetism and Faraday's law would need to be modified, and the resulting four equations would be fully symmetric under the interchange of electric and magnetic fields. [7] :273–275

## Notes

1. Electric and magnetic fields, according to the theory of relativity, are the components of a single electromagnetic field.
2. In general relativity, however, they must enter, through its stress–energy tensor, into Einstein field equations that include the spacetime curvature.
3. The absence of sinks/sources of the field does not imply that the field lines must be closed or escape to infinity. They can also wrap around indefinitely, without self-intersections. Moreover, around points where the field is zero (that cannot be intersected by field lines, because their direction would not be defined), there can be the simultaneous begin of some lines and end of other lines. This happens, for instance, in the middle between two identical cylindrical magnets, whose north poles face each other. In the middle between those magnets, the field is zero and the axial field lines coming from the magnets end. At the same time, an infinite number of divergent lines emanate radially from this point. The simultaneous presence of lines which end and begin around the point preserves the divergence-free character of the field. For a detailed discussion of non-closed field lines, see L. Zilberti "The Misconception of Closed Magnetic Flux Lines", IEEE Magnetics Letters, vol. 8, art. 1306005, 2017 (available at https://zenodo.org/record/4518772#.YCJU_WhKjIU)
4. The quantity we would now call 1ε0μ0, with units of velocity, was directly measured before Maxwell's equations, in an 1855 experiment by Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch. They charged a leyden jar (a kind of capacitor), and measured the electrostatic force associated with the potential; then, they discharged it while measuring the magnetic force from the current in the discharge wire. Their result was 3.107×108  m/s , remarkably close to the speed of light. See Joseph F. Keithley, The story of electrical and magnetic measurements: from 500 B.C. to the 1940s, p. 115
5. There are cases (anomalous dispersion) where the phase velocity can exceed c, but the "signal velocity" will still be < c
6. In some books—e.g., in U. Krey and A. Owen's Basic Theoretical Physics (Springer 2007)—the term effective charge is used instead of total charge, while free charge is simply called charge.
7. See magnetic monopole for a discussion of monopole searches. Recently, scientists have discovered that some types of condensed matter, including spin ice and topological insulators, which display emergent behavior resembling magnetic monopoles. (See sciencemag.org and nature.com.) Although these were described in the popular press as the long-awaited discovery of magnetic monopoles, they are only superficially related. A "true" magnetic monopole is something where ∇ ⋅ B ≠ 0, whereas in these condensed-matter systems, ∇ ⋅ B = 0 while only ∇ ⋅ H ≠ 0.

## Related Research Articles

In physics the Lorentz force is the combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields. A particle of charge q moving with a velocity v in an electric field E and a magnetic field B experiences a force of

An electric field is the physical field that surrounds electrically-charged particles and exerts force on all other charged particles in the field, either attracting or repelling them. It also refers to the physical field for a system of charged particles. Electric fields originate from electric charges, or from time-varying magnetic fields. Electric fields and magnetic fields are both manifestations of the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature.

In classical electromagnetism, Ampère's circuital law relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop. James Clerk Maxwell derived it using hydrodynamics in his 1861 published paper "On Physical Lines of Force" In 1865 he generalized the equation to apply to time-varying currents by adding the displacement current term, resulting in the modern form of the law, sometimes called the Ampère–Maxwell law, which is one of Maxwell's equations which form the basis of classical electromagnetism.

In electromagnetism, displacement current density is the quantity D/∂t appearing in Maxwell's equations that is defined in terms of the rate of change of D, the electric displacement field. Displacement current density has the same units as electric current density, and it is a source of the magnetic field just as actual current is. However it is not an electric current of moving charges, but a time-varying electric field. In physical materials, there is also a contribution from the slight motion of charges bound in atoms, called dielectric polarization.

In classical electromagnetism, polarization density is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced electric dipole moments in a dielectric material. When a dielectric is placed in an external electric field, its molecules gain electric dipole moment and the dielectric is said to be polarized. The electric dipole moment induced per unit volume of the dielectric material is called the electric polarization of the dielectric.

"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" is a paper by James Clerk Maxwell on electromagnetism, published in 1865. In the paper, Maxwell derives an electromagnetic wave equation with a velocity for light in close agreement with measurements made by experiment, and deduces that light is an electromagnetic wave.

Magnetic vector potential, A, is the vector quantity in classical electromagnetism defined so that its curl is equal to the magnetic field: . Together with the electric potential φ, the magnetic vector potential can be used to specify the electric field E as well. Therefore, many equations of electromagnetism can be written either in terms of the fields E and B, or equivalently in terms of the potentials φ and A. In more advanced theories such as quantum mechanics, most equations use potentials rather than fields.

In physics, the electric displacement field or electric induction is a vector field that appears in Maxwell's equations. It accounts for the effects of free and bound charge within materials. "D" stands for "displacement", as in the related concept of displacement current in dielectrics. In free space, the electric displacement field is equivalent to flux density, a concept that lends understanding of Gauss's law. In the International System of Units (SI), it is expressed in units of coulomb per meter square (C⋅m−2).

A classical field theory is a physical theory that predicts how one or more physical fields interact with matter through field equations, without considering effects of quantization; theories that incorporate quantum mechanics are called quantum field theories. In most contexts, 'classical field theory' is specifically meant to describe electromagnetism and gravitation, two of the fundamental forces of nature.

In electromagnetism, the electromagnetic tensor or electromagnetic field tensor is a mathematical object that describes the electromagnetic field in spacetime. The field tensor was first used after the four-dimensional tensor formulation of special relativity was introduced by Hermann Minkowski. The tensor allows related physical laws to be written very concisely.

In classical electromagnetism, magnetization is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole moments in a magnetic material. Movement within this field is described by direction and is either Axial or Diametric. The origin of the magnetic moments responsible for magnetization can be either microscopic electric currents resulting from the motion of electrons in atoms, or the spin of the electrons or the nuclei. Net magnetization results from the response of a material to an external magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials have a weak induced magnetization in a magnetic field, which disappears when the magnetic field is removed. Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials have strong magnetization in a magnetic field, and can be magnetized to have magnetization in the absence of an external field, becoming a permanent magnet. Magnetization is not necessarily uniform within a material, but may vary between different points. Magnetization also describes how a material responds to an applied magnetic field as well as the way the material changes the magnetic field, and can be used to calculate the forces that result from those interactions. It can be compared to electric polarization, which is the measure of the corresponding response of a material to an electric field in electrostatics. Physicists and engineers usually define magnetization as the quantity of magnetic moment per unit volume. It is represented by a pseudovector M.

In classical electromagnetism, reciprocity refers to a variety of related theorems involving the interchange of time-harmonic electric current densities (sources) and the resulting electromagnetic fields in Maxwell's equations for time-invariant linear media under certain constraints. Reciprocity is closely related to the concept of Hermitian operators from linear algebra, applied to electromagnetism.

The electromagnetic wave equation is a second-order partial differential equation that describes the propagation of electromagnetic waves through a medium or in a vacuum. It is a three-dimensional form of the wave equation. The homogeneous form of the equation, written in terms of either the electric field E or the magnetic field B, takes the form:

The Maxwell stress tensor is a symmetric second-order tensor used in classical electromagnetism to represent the interaction between electromagnetic forces and mechanical momentum. In simple situations, such as a point charge moving freely in a homogeneous magnetic field, it is easy to calculate the forces on the charge from the Lorentz force law. When the situation becomes more complicated, this ordinary procedure can become impractically difficult, with equations spanning multiple lines. It is therefore convenient to collect many of these terms in the Maxwell stress tensor, and to use tensor arithmetic to find the answer to the problem at hand.

Lorentz–Heaviside units constitute a system of units within CGS, named for Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Oliver Heaviside. They share with CGS-Gaussian units the property that the electric constant ε0 and magnetic constant µ0 do not appear, having been incorporated implicitly into the electromagnetic quantities by the way they are defined. Lorentz–Heaviside units may be regarded as normalizing ε0 = 1 and µ0 = 1, while at the same time revising Maxwell's equations to use the speed of light c instead.

The covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism refers to ways of writing the laws of classical electromagnetism in a form that is manifestly invariant under Lorentz transformations, in the formalism of special relativity using rectilinear inertial coordinate systems. These expressions both make it simple to prove that the laws of classical electromagnetism take the same form in any inertial coordinate system, and also provide a way to translate the fields and forces from one frame to another. However, this is not as general as Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime or non-rectilinear coordinate systems.

In electromagnetism and applications, an inhomogeneous electromagnetic wave equation, or nonhomogeneous electromagnetic wave equation, is one of a set of wave equations describing the propagation of electromagnetic waves generated by nonzero source charges and currents. The source terms in the wave equations make the partial differential equations inhomogeneous, if the source terms are zero the equations reduce to the homogeneous electromagnetic wave equations. The equations follow from Maxwell's equations.

There are various mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field that are used in the study of electromagnetism, one of the four fundamental interactions of nature. In this article, several approaches are discussed, although the equations are in terms of electric and magnetic fields, potentials, and charges with currents, generally speaking.

In electrodynamics, the retarded potentials are the electromagnetic potentials for the electromagnetic field generated by time-varying electric current or charge distributions in the past. The fields propagate at the speed of light c, so the delay of the fields connecting cause and effect at earlier and later times is an important factor: the signal takes a finite time to propagate from a point in the charge or current distribution to another point in space, see figure below.

In optics, the Ewald–Oseen extinction theorem, sometimes referred to as just "extinction theorem", is a theorem that underlies the common understanding of scattering. It is named after Paul Peter Ewald and Carl Wilhelm Oseen, who proved the theorem in crystalline and isotropic media, respectively, in 1916 and 1915. Originally, the theorem applied to scattering by an isotropic dielectric objects in free space. The scope of the theorem was greatly extended to encompass a wide variety of bianisotropic media.

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31. B Jiang & J Wu & L. A. Povinelli (1996). "The Origin of Spurious Solutions in Computational Electromagnetics". Journal of Computational Physics. 125 (1): 104. Bibcode:1996JCoPh.125..104J. doi:10.1006/jcph.1996.0082. hdl:.
32. Weinberg, Steven (1972). Gravitation and Cosmology. John Wiley. pp.  161–162. ISBN   978-0-471-92567-5.
33. Courant, R. & Hilbert, D. (1962), Methods of Mathematical Physics: Partial Differential Equations, II, New York: Wiley-Interscience, pp. 15–18, ISBN   9783527617241
Further reading can be found in list of textbooks in electromagnetism

## Historical publications

The developments before relativity:

• Imaeda, K. (1995), "Biquaternionic Formulation of Maxwell's Equations and their Solutions", in Ablamowicz, Rafał; Lounesto, Pertti (eds.), Clifford Algebras and Spinor Structures, Springer, pp. 265–280, doi:10.1007/978-94-015-8422-7_16, ISBN   978-90-481-4525-6