This article is missing information about large parts of the U.S. Senate's 20th and 21st-century history. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page.(January 2021)
The United States Senate building, built in 1859. Photographed in 2013.
The Senate was conceived as a check on the House of Representatives, where congressional districts are allocated to each state on the basis of population. By contrast, each state, regardless of size or population, is equally represented in the Senate through two senators, with each elected for a six-year term. Since 1913, senators have been chosen by direct popular election; however, prior to the passing of the 17th Amendment, senators were chosen by state legislatures.[4]
The exterior view of Federal Hall, designated the site of the federal government in 1788
The United States Congress, established by the U.S. Constitution, met for the first time at New York City's Federal Hall on March 4, 1789.[5] Until 1795, the Senate met behind closed doors, with no gallery for the public or journalists to spectate. The privacy of the early Senate was modeled after the Continental Congress, which also met in secret.[6] However, this practice drew criticism because the House of Representatives met in public.[7][8][9]
A significant procedural issue of the early Senate was the role of the vice president as the president of the Senate. The first vice president was allowed to craft legislation and participate in debates, but these rights were quickly removed.[10] Although the Founding Fathers intended the Senate to be the slower and more deliberate legislative body, in the early years of the Republic, the House spent more time considering legislation. For instance, Alexander Hamilton's (then Secretary of the Treasury) Bank of the United States and Assumption Bill passed the Senate with little difficulty, but faced significant opposition and lengthy debate in the House.[11]
In 1804, the House of Representatives, reflecting public and presidential sentiment against Federalist judges, voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase. However, the Senate voted to acquit him, establishing a precedent that impeachment should not be used for political disagreement.[13] As vice president, Aaron Burr presided over the impeachment trial. After the trial, Burr said:[14]
"This House is a sanctuary; a citadel of law, of order, and of liberty; and it is here–in this exalted refuge; here if anywhere, will resistance be made to the storms of political phrensy and the silent arts of corruption."[15]
On July 4, 1851, construction began of the new Senate Chamber in the United States Capitol.[22] It was designed by Thomas Ustick Walter and Montgomery C. Meigs.[23] Walter designed the chamber without windows to prevent any noises or drafts that would affect the Senators as they engaged in debate.[23][24] The Senate Chamber while lacking in windows, was not lacking in space, having a much larger size than the previous chamber. The chamber opened for congressional use in 1859.
Slavery and sectional conflict
In the decades leading up to the American Civil War, slavery was the central issue shaping debate in the United States Senate. Unlike the House of Representatives, where population differences gave the North increasing influence, the Senate’s equal representation of states allowed slave states to retain substantial power. This structure made the chamber a focal point for sectional tension and placed ongoing pressure on lawmakers to maintain a balance between free and slave states.[25]
To preserve this balance, Congress adopted a series of legislative compromises. The Missouri Compromise of 1820, brokered by Henry Clay, admitted Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state, temporarily stabilizing sectional equilibrium. However, as the nation expanded westward, maintaining parity became increasingly difficult.[26] The Compromise of 1850, negotiated by Clay and Stephen A. Douglas, addressed the status of territories acquired from Mexico and included a strengthened Fugitive Slave Law, further intensifying national debate.[27]
In the decades following the Civil War, the Senate addressed major national questions such as Reconstruction and monetary policy. During the Third Party System, state legislatures—dominated by strong party organizations—determined Senate elections, ensuring that party leaders and influential figures could secure seats.[29] This era also coincided with rapid industrial expansion, when entrepreneurs and financiers gained prestige comparable to that of military leaders, and several entered the Senate.[30]
In 1870, Hiram Revels of Mississippi became the first African American senator. Chosen by state Republicans under pressure from Black legislators, Revels filled a short unexpired term and was seated after a 48–8 Senate vote following objections from some members. Revels used his brief tenure to advocate for civil rights and protest racial segregation.[31] Four years later, Mississippi's legislature appointed Blanche Bruce, who served a full term from 1875 to 1881 and presided over the Senate in 1879. He was the last African American senator until 1967.[30]
Between 1871 and 1898, the Senate rejected or stalled numerous treaties, including reciprocal trade agreements and proposals to annex the Dominican Republic and the Danish West Indies. It also blocked an arbitration treaty with Britain. In 1898, the Senate came close to rejecting the treaty that ended the Spanish–American War.[32]
In 1907, Charles Curtis of Kansas became the first Native American senator. A registered member of the Kaw Nation with Osage and Potawatomi heritage, Curtis chaired the Indian Affairs Committee. He promoted assimilationist policies and sponsored legislation that limited tribal sovereignty, reflecting the federal government's prevailing approach to Native American affairs at the time.[34]
1913–1945
From 1913 to 1945, the United States Senate underwent numerous political reforms. During this period, it adopted procedural reforms, clearer rules for debate, and stronger leadership structures.[35]
Democratization and representation
In 1913, the Seventeenth Amendment required senators to be elected directly by voters instead of being chosen by state legislatures.[36] This reform made senators directly accountable to the electorate.
The period also brought early changes in Senate representation. On November 21, 1922, Rebecca Felton of Georgia became the first woman to serve in the Senate, although her appointment lasted only one day.[37] In 1928, Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo of New Mexico became the first Latino senator, filling a three-month unexpired term.[30] In 1932, Hattie Caraway of Arkansas became the first woman elected to the Senate. Initially appointed following her husband's death, she later won re-election twice in her own right.[38] In 1935, Dennis Chávez of New Mexico became the first Latino elected to a full Senate term.[39]
Regulation of debate and obstruction
The Senate also revised the way it handled extended debate. Senators had long been able to delay legislation through the filibuster, but it was used infrequently before the twentieth century.[40]
During World War I, fewer than twenty senators, including William Jennings Bryan, blocked a bill that would have allowed U.S. merchant ships to be armed. In response, the Senate adopted the cloture rule in 1917, allowing debate to end with a two-thirds vote.[41] President Woodrow Wilson criticized the senators involved, calling them a “group of willful men.”[41]
Leadership and agenda control
Leadership within the Senate became more structured during this period. The position of Senate Majority Leader was created, replacing an informal system in which influence was exercised mainly by committee chairs or senior senators, such as Daniel Webster or Nelson Aldrich.[42]
At first, the role carried limited authority beyond priority to speak, and divisions within the Democratic Party—especially between northern liberals and southern conservatives—further limited its effectiveness.[43]
From 1923 to 1937, Joseph T. Robinson of Arkansas served as Democratic leader of the Senate and played a key role in guiding legislation during both Republican administrations and the New Deal. He supported Presidents Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover on measures such as the Muscle Shoals project and the Hoover Tariff, and later helped advance much of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal legislation. His influence was widely noted; humorist Will Rogers joked, “Congress doesn't pass legislation any more, they just wave at the bills as they go by.”[42][44]
In 1937, the Senate strengthened the role of the majority leader by adopting the rule of first recognition, which gave the leader priority when seeking recognition to speak. This change gave Senate leaders greater control over the legislative agenda.[45]
Institutional independence
Throughout this period, the Senate continued to act independently of the executive branch. Even as presidential power expanded during the New Deal era, senators asserted their authority to oppose proposals they believed exceeded constitutional or fiscal limits.[46]
In 1937, the Senate rejected President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s proposal to expand the Supreme Court, commonly known as the “court-packing” plan. The decision demonstrated the chamber’s willingness to resist presidential initiatives, even during a period of strong executive leadership.[47]
The Senate also called for reduced federal deficits that same year, further signaling its readiness to challenge presidential priorities it disagreed with.[48]
In the early 1950s the Senate was shaken by anti-communist investigations led by Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin. McCarthy claimed that communists had infiltrated the federal government and other influential institutions. Over time, many of his accusations were found to lack evidence, and his investigations expanded to include targets such as the U.S. Army, universities, Hollywood, and business leaders. The Senate censured McCarthy in December 1954 by a 67–22 vote, effectively ending his influence.[50]
Senator Lyndon B. Johnson rose to power as Senate Majority Leader at the same time, and used newly-gained, significant authority over committee assignments to move legislation forward. Procedural changes included lowering the cloture threshold for ending filibusters from two-thirds to three-fifths in 1975.[51] Johnson later drew on this experience to help pass major civil rights laws, first as Senate leader and later as president, overcoming resistance that had stalled similar efforts for decades.[52]
The Democratic Party held the majority of seats from the 84th Congress to the 96th Congress (1955–1981), the longest continuous majority in United States Senate history.[53]
Diversity in the Senate
Representation in the U.S. Senate expanded slowly over the second half of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, reflecting changes in both Senate membership and institutional roles. In 1959, Senator Hiram Fong of Hawaii became the first Asian American elected to the Senate, where he supported civil rights legislation and reforms aimed at expanding voting access for Asian Americans.[30]
In 1966, Senator Edward W. Brooke of Massachusetts became the first African American to be popularly elected to the Senate since the Reconstruction era. A liberal Republican, he served two terms and focused on civil rights and social reform.[54] In 1992, Senator Carol Moseley Braun of Illinois became the first African American woman elected to the Senate. During her single term, she emphasized education reform and gun control.[55]
Changes in representation were also reflected in Senate roles beyond elected office. In 1971, Paulette Desell became the first female Senate page, following her appointment by Senator Jacob K. Javits.[30] In 2009, Kathie Alvarez became the first woman to serve as a legislative clerk in the Senate.[56]
In the 21st century, further milestones marked broader diversity within the chamber. In 2012, Senator Tammy Baldwin was elected as the first openly gay U.S. Senator.[57] The following year, Senator Mazie Hirono became the first Asian American woman elected to the Senate. In 2017, Senator Catherine Cortez Masto became the first Latina and Mexican American woman to serve in the Senate.[58]
In 2026, Senator Chuck Grassley, born September 17, 1933, became the longest serving Republican senator in Senate history, and the current oldest member of the Senate at 92 years old. [61]
Senators who have served as President
17 US Presidents have previously been members of the Senate.[62]
Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, The Almanac of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (1975); new edition every 2 years, informal practices, and member information)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004: A Review of Government and Politics: 107th and 108th Congresses (2005); summary of Congressional activity, as well as major executive and judicial decisions; based on Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report and the annual CQ almanac.
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001 (2002)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996 (1998)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992 (1993)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988 (1989)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984 (1985)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980 (1981)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976 (1977)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972 (1973)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968 (1969)
Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964 (1965), the first of the series
Institutional studies
Brady, David W. and Mathew D. McCubbins, eds. Party, Process, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002)
Cooper, John Milton, Jr.Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations. (Cambridge U. Press, 2001).
Feinman, Ronald L. Twilight of progressivism: the western Republican senators and the New Deal (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981)
Feldman, Gabe. "Death of a senator: Life expectancy and causes of death in 20th-century US senators." American journal of public health 93.5 (2003): 771-771. online
Finley, Keith M. Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938-1965 (LSU Press, 2008).
Goodwin, George. "The seniority system in Congress." American Political Science Review 53.2 (1959): 412-436.
Gould, Lewis L. The Most Exclusive Club: A History Of The Modern United States Senate (2005) the latest full-scale history by a scholar
Harmon, F. Martin. Presidents versus Senators: Conflicts and Rivalries That Shaped America (2021) excerpt
Hernon, Joseph Martin. Profiles in Character: Hubris and Heroism in the U.S. Senate, 1789–1990 (Sharpe, 1997).
Hoebeke, C. H. The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Amendment. (Transaction Books, 1995).
Hunt, Richard. (1998). "Using the Records of Congress in the Classroom," OAH Magazine of History, 12 (Summer): 34–37.
Johnson, Robert David. The Peace Progressives and American Foreign Relations. (Harvard U. Press, 1995). in 1920s and 1930s
Koger, Gregory. "Cloture reform and party government in the Senate, 1918–1925." Journal of politics 68.3 (2006): 708-719.
Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952. (Susquehanna U. Press 2000).
Paulos, Michael Harold and Konden Smith Hansen. The Reed Smoot Hearings: The Investigation of a Mormon Senator and the Transformation of an American Religion (2022) the first Mormon Senator
Ritchie, Donald A. Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. (Harvard UP, 1991).
Ritchie, Donald A. The Congress of the United States: A Student Companion (Oxford UP, 2001).
Ritchie, Donald A. Reporting from Washington: The History of the Washington Press Corps (Oxford UP, 2005).
Rothman, David J. Politics and power; the United States Senate, 1869-1901 (Harvard UP, 1966) richly detailed scholarly history online
Swift, Elaine K. The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Change in Congress, 1787–1841. U. of Michigan Press, 1996.
Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the United States Senate (Johns Hopkins UP, 2004) excerpt
Zelizer, Julian E. On Capitol Hill: The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000 (2006) online
Biographical
American National Biography (1999) 24 volumes plus 2 supplements; contains scholarly biographies of all politicians no longer alive; online
Baker, Richard A.. and Roger H. Davidson, eds. First Among Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century (1992).
Ashby, LeRoy and Gramer, Rod. Fighting the Odds: The Life of Senator Frank Church. (Washington State U. Press, 1994). Chair of Foreign Relations in the 1970s; Democrat of Idaho
Barnard, Harry. Independent Man: The Life of Senator James Couzens (Wayne State University Press, 2002), of Michigan.
Becnel, Thomas A. Senator Allen Ellender of Louisiana: A Biography. (Louisiana State U. Press, 1995). Democrat online
Caro, Robert A. Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson Vol. 3 (Vintage, 2009).
Farrell, John A. Ted Kennedy: A Life (2022) Democrat of Massachusetts
Fite, Gilbert. Richard B. Russell, Jr., Senator from Georgia (1991) powerful Democrat; online
Garraty, John A. Henry Cabot Lodge, a biography (1953), Republican of Massachusetts online
Goldberg, Robert Alan. Barry Goldwater (1995), Rep;ublican of Arizona
Herman, Arthur. Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator (Simon and Schuster, 2000), Republican of Wisconsin.
Houston, G. David. "A Negro Senator." Journal of Negro History 7.3 (1922): 243-256. online; Blanche Bruce Republican of Mississippi
Johnson, Claudius O. Borah of Idaho (1936) online, Republican
Johnson, Marc C. Political Hell-Raiser: The Life and Times of Senator Burton K. Wheeler of Montana (University of Oklahoma Press, 2019); Democrat
Keith, Caroline H. For Hell and a Brown Mule: The Biography of Senator Millard E. Tydings (Madison Books, 1991), Democrat of Maryland
Laymon, Sherry. Fearless: John L McClellan, United States Senator (2022), Democrat of Arkansas
Lower, Richard Coke. A Bloc of One: The Political Career of Hiram W. Johnson (Stanford University Press, 1993); Republican of California.
McFarland, Ernest W. The Ernest W. McFarland Papers: The United States Senate Years, 1940–1952. (Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995). Democratic majority leader 1950–1952; of Arizona
Mann, Robert. The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights. (Harcourt Brace, 1996).
Miller, G. Wayne. An Uncommon Man: The Life & Times of Senator Claiborne Pell (UPNE, 2011) Democrat of Rhode Island.
Norris, George W. Fighting Liberal: The Autobiography of George W. Norris (U of Nebraska Press, 1992) Republican of Nebraska. online
Fellman, David. "The Liberalism of Senator Norris." American Political Science Review 40.1 (1946): 27-51. online
Palermo, Joseph A. In His Own Right: The Political Odyssey of Senator Robert F. Kennedy (Columbia UP, 2002) Democrat of New York.
Patterson, James T. Mr. Republican; a biography of Robert A. Taft (1972) online
Price, Christopher. "Peace and Progress: The Life and Political Contributions of Senator Jennings Randolph." West Virginia History: A Journal of Regional Studies 14.2 (2020): 1-27. Democrat of West Virginia
O'Brien, Michael. Philip Hart: The Conscience of the Senate. (Michigan State U. Press 1995) Democrat of Michigan.
Rice, Ross R. Carl Hayden: Builder of the American West (U. Press of America, 1993). Chair of Appropriations in the 1960s and 1970s; Democrat of Arizona.
Stephenson, Nathaniel W. Nelson W. Aldrich: A Leader in American Politics (1930), powerful Republican from Rhode Island
Valeo, Frank. Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Different Kind of Senate, 1961–1976 (Sharpe, 1999). Senate majority leader. Democrat Of Montana.
Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. Joe T. Robinson: Always a Loyal Democrat. U. of Arkansas Press, 1998. Majority leader in the 1930s; of Arkansas.
Winston, Mitch. Senator Daniel Inouye: WW II Hero and America Finest Senator (2022), Democrat of Hawaii
Mark O. Hatfield, with the Senate Historical Office. Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789–1993. (stock number 052-071-01227-3); essays reprinted online
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