Isotopes of lead

Isotopes of lead (₈₂Pb)
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Pb)
	[206.14, 207.94]; 207.2±1.1 (abridged);
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Last updated May 04, 2024

Lead (₈₂Pb) has four observationally stable isotopes: ²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁶Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb, ²⁰⁸Pb. Lead-204 is entirely a primordial nuclide and is not a radiogenic nuclide. The three isotopes lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 represent the ends of three decay chains: the uranium series (or radium series), the actinium series, and the thorium series, respectively; a fourth decay chain, the neptunium series, terminates with the thallium isotope ²⁰⁵Tl. The three series terminating in lead represent the decay chain products of long-lived primordial ²³⁸U, ²³⁵U, and ²³²Th. Each isotope also occurs, to some extent, as primordial isotopes that were made in supernovae, rather than radiogenically as daughter products. The fixed ratio of lead-204 to the primordial amounts of the other lead isotopes may be used as the baseline to estimate the extra amounts of radiogenic lead present in rocks as a result of decay from uranium and thorium. (See lead–lead dating and uranium–lead dating.)

The longest-lived radioisotopes are ²⁰⁵Pb with a half-life of 17.3 million years and ²⁰²Pb with a half-life of 52,500 years. A shorter-lived naturally occurring radioisotope, ²¹⁰Pb with a half-life of 22.2 years, is useful for studying the sedimentation chronology of environmental samples on time scales shorter than 100 years.^[5]

The relative abundances of the four stable isotopes are approximately 1.5%, 24%, 22%, and 52.5%, combining to give a standard atomic weight (abundance-weighted average of the stable isotopes) of 207.2(1). Lead is the element with the heaviest stable isotope, ²⁰⁸Pb. (The more massive ²⁰⁹Bi, long considered to be stable, actually has a half-life of 2.01×10¹⁹ years.) ²⁰⁸Pb is also a doubly magic isotope, as it has 82 protons and 126 neutrons.^[6] It is the heaviest doubly magic nuclide known. A total of 43 lead isotopes are now known, including very unstable synthetic species.

The four primordial isotopes of lead are all observationally stable, meaning that they are predicted to undergo radioactive decay but no decay has been observed yet. These four isotopes are predicted to undergo alpha decay and become isotopes of mercury which are themselves radioactive or observationally stable.

In its fully ionized state, the beta decay of isotope ²¹⁰Pb does not release a free electron; the generated electron is instead captured by the atom's empty orbitals.^[7]

List of isotopes

Nuclide^[8] ^{[n 1]}	Historic name	Z	N	Isotopic mass (Da)^[9] ^{[n 2]}^{[n 3]}	Half-life	Decay mode ^{[n 4]}	Daughter isotope ^{[n 5]}^{[n 6]}	Spin and parity ^{[n 7]}^{[n 8]}	Natural abundance (mole fraction)
Nuclide^[8] ^{[n 1]}	Historic name	Excitation energy^{[n 8]}			Half-life	Decay mode ^{[n 4]}	Daughter isotope ^{[n 5]}^{[n 6]}	Spin and parity ^{[n 7]}^{[n 8]}	Normal proportion	Range of variation
¹⁷⁸Pb		82	96	178.003830(26)	0.23(15) ms	α	¹⁷⁴Hg	0+
¹⁷⁹Pb		82	97	179.00215(21)#	3.9(1.1) ms	α	¹⁷⁵Hg	(9/2−)
¹⁸⁰Pb		82	98	179.997918(22)	4.5(11) ms	α	¹⁷⁶Hg	0+
¹⁸¹Pb		82	99	180.99662(10)	45(20) ms	α (98%)	¹⁷⁷Hg	(9/2−)
¹⁸¹Pb		82	99	180.99662(10)	45(20) ms	β⁺ (2%)	¹⁸¹Tl	(9/2−)
¹⁸²Pb		82	100	181.992672(15)	60(40) ms [55(+40−35) ms]	α (98%)	¹⁷⁸Hg	0+
¹⁸²Pb		82	100	181.992672(15)	60(40) ms [55(+40−35) ms]	β⁺ (2%)	¹⁸²Tl	0+
¹⁸³Pb		82	101	182.99187(3)	535(30) ms	α (94%)	¹⁷⁹Hg	(3/2−)
¹⁸³Pb		82	101	182.99187(3)	535(30) ms	β⁺ (6%)	¹⁸³Tl	(3/2−)
^183mPb		94(8) keV			415(20) ms	α	¹⁷⁹Hg	(13/2+)
^183mPb		94(8) keV			415(20) ms	β⁺ (rare)	¹⁸³Tl	(13/2+)
¹⁸⁴Pb		82	102	183.988142(15)	490(25) ms	α	¹⁸⁰Hg	0+
¹⁸⁴Pb		82	102	183.988142(15)	490(25) ms	β⁺ (rare)	¹⁸⁴Tl	0+
¹⁸⁵Pb		82	103	184.987610(17)	6.3(4) s	α	¹⁸¹Hg	3/2−
¹⁸⁵Pb		82	103	184.987610(17)	6.3(4) s	β⁺ (rare)	¹⁸⁵Tl	3/2−
^185mPb		60(40)# keV			4.07(15) s	α	¹⁸¹Hg	13/2+
^185mPb		60(40)# keV			4.07(15) s	β⁺ (rare)	¹⁸⁵Tl	13/2+
¹⁸⁶Pb		82	104	185.984239(12)	4.82(3) s	α (56%)	¹⁸²Hg	0+
¹⁸⁶Pb		82	104	185.984239(12)	4.82(3) s	β⁺ (44%)	¹⁸⁶Tl	0+
¹⁸⁷Pb		82	105	186.983918(9)	15.2(3) s	β⁺	¹⁸⁷Tl	(3/2−)
¹⁸⁷Pb		82	105	186.983918(9)	15.2(3) s	α	¹⁸³Hg	(3/2−)
^187mPb		11(11) keV			18.3(3) s	β⁺ (98%)	¹⁸⁷Tl	(13/2+)
^187mPb		11(11) keV			18.3(3) s	α (2%)	¹⁸³Hg	(13/2+)
¹⁸⁸Pb		82	106	187.980874(11)	25.5(1) s	β⁺ (91.5%)	¹⁸⁸Tl	0+
¹⁸⁸Pb		82	106	187.980874(11)	25.5(1) s	α (8.5%)	¹⁸⁴Hg	0+
^188m1Pb		2578.2(7) keV			830(210) ns			(8−)
^188m2Pb		2800(50) keV			797(21) ns
¹⁸⁹Pb		82	107	188.98081(4)	51(3) s	β⁺	¹⁸⁹Tl	(3/2−)
^189m1Pb		40(30)# keV			50.5(2.1) s	β⁺ (99.6%)	¹⁸⁹Tl	13/2+
^189m1Pb		40(30)# keV			50.5(2.1) s	α (.4%)	¹⁸⁵Hg	13/2+
^189m2Pb		2475(30)# keV			26(5) μs			(10)+
¹⁹⁰Pb		82	108	189.978082(13)	71(1) s	β⁺ (99.1%)	¹⁹⁰Tl	0+
¹⁹⁰Pb		82	108	189.978082(13)	71(1) s	α (.9%)	¹⁸⁶Hg	0+
^190m1Pb		2614.8(8) keV			150 ns			(10)+
^190m2Pb		2618(20) keV			25 μs			(12+)
^190m3Pb		2658.2(8) keV			7.2(6) μs			(11)−
¹⁹¹Pb		82	109	190.97827(4)	1.33(8) min	β⁺ (99.987%)	¹⁹¹Tl	(3/2−)
¹⁹¹Pb		82	109	190.97827(4)	1.33(8) min	α (.013%)	¹⁸⁷Hg	(3/2−)
^191mPb		20(50) keV			2.18(8) min	β⁺ (99.98%)	¹⁹¹Tl	13/2(+)
^191mPb		20(50) keV			2.18(8) min	α (.02%)	¹⁸⁷Hg	13/2(+)
¹⁹²Pb		82	110	191.975785(14)	3.5(1) min	β⁺ (99.99%)	¹⁹²Tl	0+
¹⁹²Pb		82	110	191.975785(14)	3.5(1) min	α (.0061%)	¹⁸⁸Hg	0+
^192m1Pb		2581.1(1) keV			164(7) ns			(10)+
^192m2Pb		2625.1(11) keV			1.1(5) μs			(12+)
^192m3Pb		2743.5(4) keV			756(21) ns			(11)−
¹⁹³Pb		82	111	192.97617(5)	5# min	β⁺	¹⁹³Tl	(3/2−)
^193m1Pb		130(80)# keV			5.8(2) min	β⁺	¹⁹³Tl	13/2(+)
^193m2Pb		2612.5(5)+X keV			135(+25−15) ns			(33/2+)
¹⁹⁴Pb		82	112	193.974012(19)	12.0(5) min	β⁺ (100%)	¹⁹⁴Tl	0+
¹⁹⁴Pb		82	112	193.974012(19)	12.0(5) min	α (7.3×10⁻⁶%)	¹⁹⁰Hg	0+
¹⁹⁵Pb		82	113	194.974542(25)	~15 min	β⁺	¹⁹⁵Tl	3/2#-
^195m1Pb		202.9(7) keV			15.0(12) min	β⁺	¹⁹⁵Tl	13/2+
^195m2Pb		1759.0(7) keV			10.0(7) μs			21/2−
¹⁹⁶Pb		82	114	195.972774(15)	37(3) min	β⁺	¹⁹⁶Tl	0+
¹⁹⁶Pb		82	114	195.972774(15)	37(3) min	α (<3×10⁻⁵%)	¹⁹²Hg	0+
^196m1Pb		1049.20(9) keV			<100 ns			2+
^196m2Pb		1738.27(12) keV			<1 μs			4+
^196m3Pb		1797.51(14) keV			140(14) ns			5−
^196m4Pb		2693.5(5) keV			270(4) ns			(12+)
¹⁹⁷Pb		82	115	196.973431(6)	8.1(17) min	β⁺	¹⁹⁷Tl	3/2−
^197m1Pb		319.31(11) keV			42.9(9) min	β⁺ (81%)	¹⁹⁷Tl	13/2+
						IT (19%)	¹⁹⁷Pb
						α (3×10⁻⁴%)	¹⁹³Hg
^197m2Pb		1914.10(25) keV			1.15(20) μs			21/2−
¹⁹⁸Pb		82	116	197.972034(16)	2.4(1) h	β⁺	¹⁹⁸Tl	0+
^198m1Pb		2141.4(4) keV			4.19(10) μs			(7)−
^198m2Pb		2231.4(5) keV			137(10) ns			(9)−
^198m3Pb		2820.5(7) keV			212(4) ns			(12)+
¹⁹⁹Pb		82	117	198.972917(28)	90(10) min	β⁺	¹⁹⁹Tl	3/2−
^199m1Pb		429.5(27) keV			12.2(3) min	IT (93%)	¹⁹⁹Pb	(13/2+)
^199m1Pb		429.5(27) keV			12.2(3) min	β⁺ (7%)	¹⁹⁹Tl	(13/2+)
^199m2Pb		2563.8(27) keV			10.1(2) μs			(29/2−)
²⁰⁰Pb		82	118	199.971827(12)	21.5(4) h	EC	²⁰⁰Tl	0+
²⁰¹Pb		82	119	200.972885(24)	9.33(3) h	EC (99%)	²⁰¹Tl	5/2−
²⁰¹Pb		82	119	200.972885(24)	9.33(3) h	β⁺ (1%)	²⁰¹Tl	5/2−
^201m1Pb		629.14(17) keV			61(2) s			13/2+
^201m2Pb		2718.5+X keV			508(5) ns			(29/2−)
²⁰²Pb		82	120	201.972159(9)	5.25(28)×10⁴ y	EC	²⁰²Tl	0+
^202m1Pb		2169.83(7) keV			3.54(2) h	IT (90.5%)	²⁰²Pb	9−
^202m1Pb		2169.83(7) keV			3.54(2) h	β⁺ (9.5%)	²⁰²Tl	9−
^202m2Pb		4142.9(11) keV			110(5) ns			(16+)
^202m3Pb		5345.9(13) keV			107(5) ns			(19−)
²⁰³Pb		82	121	202.973391(7)	51.873(9) h	EC	²⁰³Tl	5/2−
^203m1Pb		825.20(9) keV			6.21(8) s	IT	²⁰³Pb	13/2+
^203m2Pb		2949.47(22) keV			480(7) ms			29/2−
^203m3Pb		2923.4+X keV			122(4) ns			(25/2−)
²⁰⁴Pb^{[n 9]}		82	122	203.9730436(13)	Observationally stable ^{[n 10]}			0+	0.014(1)	0.0000–0.0158^[10]
^204m1Pb		1274.00(4) keV			265(10) ns			4+
^204m2Pb		2185.79(5) keV			67.2(3) min			9−
^204m3Pb		2264.33(4) keV			0.45(+10−3) μs			7−
²⁰⁵Pb		82	123	204.9744818(13)	1.73(7)×10⁷ y	EC	²⁰⁵Tl	5/2−
^205m1Pb		2.329(7) keV			24.2(4) μs			1/2−
^205m2Pb		1013.839(13) keV			5.55(2) ms			13/2+
^205m3Pb		3195.7(5) keV			217(5) ns			25/2−
²⁰⁶Pb^{[n 9]}^{[n 11]}	Radium G^[11]	82	124	205.9744653(13)	Observationally stable^{[n 12]}^[12]			0+	0.241(1)	0.0190–0.8673^[10]
^206m1Pb		2200.14(4) keV			125(2) μs			7−
^206m2Pb		4027.3(7) keV			202(3) ns			12+
²⁰⁷Pb^{[n 9]}^{[n 13]}	Actinium D	82	125	206.9758969(13)	Observationally stable^{[n 14]}^[12]			1/2−	0.221(1)	0.0035–0.2351^[10]
^207mPb		1633.368(5) keV			806(6) ms	IT	²⁰⁷Pb	13/2+
²⁰⁸Pb^{[n 15]}	Thorium D	82	126	207.9766521(13)	Observationally stable^{[n 16]}^[12]			0+	0.524(1)	0.0338–0.9775^[10]
^208mPb		4895(2) keV			500(10) ns			10+
²⁰⁹Pb		82	127	208.9810901(19)	3.253(14) h	β⁻	²⁰⁹Bi	9/2+	Trace^{[n 17]}
²¹⁰Pb	Radium D Radiolead Radio-lead	82	128	209.9841885(16)	22.20(22) y	β⁻ (100%)	²¹⁰Bi	0+	Trace^{[n 18]}
²¹⁰Pb	Radium D Radiolead Radio-lead	82	128	209.9841885(16)	22.20(22) y	α (1.9×10⁻⁶%)	²⁰⁶Hg	0+	Trace^{[n 18]}
^210mPb		1278(5) keV			201(17) ns			8+
²¹¹Pb	Actinium B	82	129	210.9887370(29)	36.1(2) min	β⁻	²¹¹Bi	9/2+	Trace^{[n 19]}
²¹²Pb	Thorium B	82	130	211.9918975(24)	10.64(1) h	β⁻	²¹²Bi	0+	Trace^{[n 20]}
^212mPb		1335(10) keV			6.0(0.8) μs	IT	²¹²Pb	(8+)
²¹³Pb		82	131	212.996581(8)	10.2(3) min	β⁻	²¹³Bi	(9/2+)	Trace^{[n 17]}
²¹⁴Pb	Radium B	82	132	213.9998054(26)	26.8(9) min	β⁻	²¹⁴Bi	0+	Trace^{[n 18]}
^214mPb		1420(20) keV			6.2(0.3) μs	IT	²¹²Pb	8+#
²¹⁵Pb		82	133	215.004660(60)	2.34(0.19) min	β⁻	²¹⁵Bi	9/2+#
²¹⁶Pb		82	134	216.008030(210)#	1.65(0.2) min	β⁻	²¹⁶Bi	0+
^216mPb		1514(20) keV			400(40) ns	IT	²¹⁶Pb	8+#
²¹⁷Pb		82	135	217.013140(320)#	20(5) s	β⁻	²¹⁷Bi	9/2+#
²¹⁸Pb		82	136	218.016590(320)#	15(7) s	β⁻	²¹⁸Bi	0+
This table header & footer: view

↑ ^mPb – Excited nuclear isomer.
↑ ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
↑ # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
↑ Modes of decay:
EC: Electron capture
IT: Isomeric transition
↑ Bold italics symbol as daughter – Daughter product is nearly stable.
↑ Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
↑ ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
1 2 # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
1 2 3 Used in lead–lead dating
↑ Believed to undergo α decay to ²⁰⁰Hg with a half-life over 1.4×10²⁰ years
↑ Final decay product of 4n+2 decay chain (the Radium or Uranium series)
↑ Experimental lower bound is $\tau _{1/2}>2.5\times 10^{21}$ years; the theoretical lifetime for α decay to ²⁰²Hg is $>10^{65}$ years.
↑ Final decay product of 4n+3 decay chain (the Actinium series)
↑ Experimental lower bound is $\tau _{1/2}>1.9\times 10^{21}$ years; the theoretical lifetime for α decay to ²⁰³Hg is $>10^{152}$ years.
↑ Heaviest observationally stable nuclide; final decay product of 4n decay chain (the Thorium series)
↑ Experimental lower bound is $\tau _{1/2}>2.6\times 10^{21}$ years; the theoretical lifetime for α decay to ²⁰⁴Hg is $>10^{124}$ years.
1 2 Intermediate decay product of ²³⁷Np
1 2 Intermediate decay product of ²³⁸U
↑ Intermediate decay product of ²³⁵U
↑ Intermediate decay product of ²³²Th

Lead-206

²⁰⁶Pb is the final step in the decay chain of ²³⁸U, the "radium series" or "uranium series". In a closed system, over time, a given mass of ²³⁸U will decay in a sequence of steps culminating in ²⁰⁶Pb. The production of intermediate products eventually reaches an equilibrium (though this takes a long time, as the half-life of ²³⁴U is 245,500 years). Once this stabilized system is reached, the ratio of ²³⁸U to ²⁰⁶Pb will steadily decrease, while the ratios of the other intermediate products to each other remain constant.

Like most radioisotopes found in the radium series, ²⁰⁶Pb was initially named as a variation of radium, specifically radium G. It is the decay product of both ²¹⁰Po (historically called radium F) by alpha decay, and the much rarer ²⁰⁶Tl (radium E^II) by beta decay.

Lead-206 has been proposed for use in fast breeder nuclear fission reactor coolant over the use of natural lead mixture (which also includes other stable lead isotopes) as a mechanism to improve neutron economy and greatly suppress unwanted production of highly radioactive byproducts.^[13]

Lead-204, -207, and -208

²⁰⁴Pb is entirely primordial, and is thus useful for estimating the fraction of the other lead isotopes in a given sample that are also primordial, since the relative fractions of the various primordial lead isotopes is constant everywhere.^[14] Any excess lead-206, -207, and -208 is thus assumed to be radiogenic in origin,^[14] allowing various uranium and thorium dating schemes to be used to estimate the age of rocks (time since their formation) based on the relative abundance of lead-204 to other isotopes. ²⁰⁷Pb is the end of the actinium series from ²³⁵U.

²⁰⁸Pb is the end of the thorium series from ²³²Th. While it only makes up approximately half of the composition of lead in most places on Earth, it can be found naturally enriched up to around 90% in thorium ores.^[15]²⁰⁸Pb is the heaviest known stable nuclide and also the heaviest known doubly magic nucleus, as Z = 82 and N = 126 correspond to closed nuclear shells.^[16] As a consequence of this particularly stable configuration, its neutron capture cross section is very low (even lower than that of deuterium in the thermal spectrum), making it of interest for lead-cooled fast reactors.

Lead-212

²¹²Pb-containing radiopharmaceuticals have been trialed as therapeutic agents for the experimental cancer treatment targeted alpha-particle therapy.^[17]

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decay product</span> The remaining nuclide left over from radioactive decay

In nuclear physics, a decay product is the remaining nuclide left over from radioactive decay. Radioactive decay often proceeds via a sequence of steps. For example, ²³⁸U decays to ²³⁴Th which decays to ^234mPa which decays, and so on, to ²⁰⁶Pb :

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclide</span> Atomic species

A nuclide is a class of atoms characterized by their number of protons, Z, their number of neutrons, N, and their nuclear energy state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decay chain</span> Series of radioactive decays

In nuclear science, the decay chain refers to a series of radioactive decays of different radioactive decay products as a sequential series of transformations. It is also known as a "radioactive cascade". The typical radioisotope does not decay directly to a stable state, but rather it decays to another radioisotope. Thus there is usually a series of decays until the atom has become a stable isotope, meaning that the nucleus of the atom has reached a stable state.

Polonium-210 (²¹⁰Po, Po-210, historically radium F) is an isotope of polonium. It undergoes alpha decay to stable ²⁰⁶Pb with a half-life of 138.376 days (about 4+1⁄2 months), the longest half-life of all naturally occurring polonium isotopes (^210–218Po). First identified in 1898, and also marking the discovery of the element polonium, ²¹⁰Po is generated in the decay chain of uranium-238 and radium-226. ²¹⁰Po is a prominent contaminant in the environment, mostly affecting seafood and tobacco. Its extreme toxicity is attributed to intense radioactivity, mostly due to alpha particles, which easily cause radiation damage, including cancer in surrounding tissue. The specific activity of ²¹⁰
Po is 166 TBq/g, i.e., 1.66 × 10¹⁴ Bq/g. At the same time, ²¹⁰Po is not readily detected by common radiation detectors, because its gamma rays have a very low energy. Therefore, ²¹⁰
Po can be considered as a quasi-pure alpha emitter.

Thorium-232 is the main naturally occurring isotope of thorium, with a relative abundance of 99.98%. It has a half life of 14 billion years, which makes it the longest-lived isotope of thorium. It decays by alpha decay to radium-228; its decay chain terminates at stable lead-208.

Uranium (₉₂U) is a naturally occurring radioactive element that has no stable isotope. It has two primordial isotopes, uranium-238 and uranium-235, that have long half-lives and are found in appreciable quantity in the Earth's crust. The decay product uranium-234 is also found. Other isotopes such as uranium-233 have been produced in breeder reactors. In addition to isotopes found in nature or nuclear reactors, many isotopes with far shorter half-lives have been produced, ranging from ²¹⁴U to ²⁴²U. The standard atomic weight of natural uranium is 238.02891(3).

Protactinium (₉₁Pa) has no stable isotopes. The four naturally occurring isotopes allow a standard atomic weight to be given.

Thorium (₉₀Th) has seven naturally occurring isotopes but none are stable. One isotope, ²³²Th, is relatively stable, with a half-life of 1.405×10¹⁰ years, considerably longer than the age of the Earth, and even slightly longer than the generally accepted age of the universe. This isotope makes up nearly all natural thorium, so thorium was considered to be mononuclidic. However, in 2013, IUPAC reclassified thorium as binuclidic, due to large amounts of ²³⁰Th in deep seawater. Thorium has a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition and thus a standard atomic weight can be given.

Radium (₈₈Ra) has no stable or nearly stable isotopes, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. The longest lived, and most common, isotope of radium is ²²⁶Ra with a half-life of 1600 years. ²²⁶Ra occurs in the decay chain of ²³⁸U. Radium has 34 known isotopes from ²⁰¹Ra to ²³⁴Ra.

Bismuth (₈₃Bi) has 41 known isotopes, ranging from ¹⁸⁴Bi to ²²⁴Bi. Bismuth has no stable isotopes, but does have one very long-lived isotope; thus, the standard atomic weight can be given as 208.98040(1). Although bismuth-209 is now known to be radioactive, it has classically been considered to be a stable isotope because it has a half-life of approximately 2.01×10¹⁹ years, which is more than a billion times the age of the universe. Besides ²⁰⁹Bi, the most stable bismuth radioisotopes are ^210mBi with a half-life of 3.04 million years, ²⁰⁸Bi with a half-life of 368,000 years and ²⁰⁷Bi, with a half-life of 32.9 years, none of which occurs in nature. All other isotopes have half-lives under 1 year, most under a day. Of naturally occurring radioisotopes, the most stable is radiogenic ²¹⁰Bi with a half-life of 5.012 days. ^210mBi is unusual for being a nuclear isomer with a half-life multiple orders of magnitude longer than that of the ground state.

Tin (₅₀Sn) is the element with the greatest number of stable isotopes. This is probably related to the fact that 50 is a "magic number" of protons. In addition, twenty-nine unstable tin isotopes are known, including tin-100 (¹⁰⁰Sn) and tin-132 (¹³²Sn), which are both "doubly magic". The longest-lived tin radioisotope is tin-126 (¹²⁶Sn), with a half-life of 230,000 years. The other 28 radioisotopes have half-lives of less than a year.

Potassium has 26 known isotopes from ³¹
K to ⁵⁷
K, with the exception of still-unknown ³²
K, as well as an unconfirmed report of ⁵⁹
K. Three of those isotopes occur naturally: the two stable forms ³⁹
K (93.3%) and ⁴¹
K (6.7%), and a very long-lived radioisotope ⁴⁰
K (0.012%)

Neptunium (₉₃Np) is usually considered an artificial element, although trace quantities are found in nature, so a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all trace or artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized and identified was ²³⁹Np in 1940, produced by bombarding ²³⁸
U with neutrons to produce ²³⁹
U, which then underwent beta decay to ²³⁹
Np.

Plutonium (₉₄Pu) is an artificial element, except for trace quantities resulting from neutron capture by uranium, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. It was synthesized long before being found in nature, the first isotope synthesized being plutonium-238 in 1940. Twenty plutonium radioisotopes have been characterized. The most stable are plutonium-244 with a half-life of 80.8 million years; plutonium-242 with a half-life of 373,300 years; and plutonium-239 with a half-life of 24,110 years; and plutonium-240 with a half-life of 6,560 years. This element also has eight meta states; all have half-lives of less than one second.

Uranium-236 (²³⁶U) is an isotope of uranium that is neither fissile with thermal neutrons, nor very good fertile material, but is generally considered a nuisance and long-lived radioactive waste. It is found in spent nuclear fuel and in the reprocessed uranium made from spent nuclear fuel.

Lead–lead dating is a method for dating geological samples, normally based on 'whole-rock' samples of material such as granite. For most dating requirements it has been superseded by uranium–lead dating, but in certain specialized situations it is more important than U–Pb dating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primordial nuclide</span> Nuclides predating the Earths formation (found on Earth)

In geochemistry, geophysics and nuclear physics, primordial nuclides, also known as primordial isotopes, are nuclides found on Earth that have existed in their current form since before Earth was formed. Primordial nuclides were present in the interstellar medium from which the solar system was formed, and were formed in, or after, the Big Bang, by nucleosynthesis in stars and supernovae followed by mass ejection, by cosmic ray spallation, and potentially from other processes. They are the stable nuclides plus the long-lived fraction of radionuclides surviving in the primordial solar nebula through planet accretion until the present; 286 such nuclides are known.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radiogenic nuclide</span>

A radiogenic nuclide is a nuclide that is produced by a process of radioactive decay. It may itself be radioactive or stable.

References

↑ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
↑ Meija et al. 2016.
↑ "Standard Atomic Weights: Lead". CIAAW. 2020.
↑ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
↑ Jeter, Hewitt W. (March 2000). "Determining the Ages of Recent Sediments Using Measurements of Trace Radioactivity" (PDF). Terra et Aqua (78): 21–28. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 23, 2019.
↑ Blank, B.; Regan, P.H. (2000). "Magic and doubly-magic nuclei". Nuclear Physics News. 10 (4): 20–27. doi:10.1080/10506890109411553. S2CID 121966707.
↑ Takahashi, K; Boyd, R. N.; Mathews, G. J.; Yokoi, K. (October 1987). "Bound-state beta decay of highly ionized atoms". Physical Review C. 36 (4): 1522–1528. Bibcode:1987PhRvC..36.1522T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.36.1522. ISSN 0556-2813. OCLC 1639677. PMID 9954244 . Retrieved 2016-11-20. As can be seen in Table I (¹⁸⁷Re, ²¹⁰Pb, ²²⁷Ac, and ²⁴¹Pu), some continuum-state decays are energetically forbidden when the atom is fully ionized. This is because the atomic binding energies liberated by ionization, i.e., the total electron binding in the neutral atom, $B n$ , increases with $Z$ . If [the decay energy] $Q n < B n (Z +1)- B n (Z)$ , the continuum-state $β$ decay is energetically forbidden.
↑ Half-life, decay mode, nuclear spin, and isotopic composition is sourced in:
Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.
↑ Wang, M.; Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Xu, X. (2017). "The AME2016 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs, and references" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030003-1–030003-442. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030003.
1 2 3 4 "Standard Atomic Weights: Lead". CIAAW. 2020.
↑ Kuhn, W. (1929). "LXVIII. Scattering of thorium C" γ-radiation by radium G and ordinary lead". The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 8 (52): 628. doi:10.1080/14786441108564923.
1 2 3 Beeman, J.W.; et al. (2013). "New experimental limits on the alpha decays of lead isotopes". European Physical Journal A. 49 (4): 50. arXiv: 1212.2422 . Bibcode:2013EPJA...49...50B. doi:10.1140/epja/i2013-13050-7. S2CID 254111888.
↑ Khorasanov, G. L.; Ivanov, A. P.; Blokhin, A. I. (2002). Polonium Issue in Fast Reactor Lead Coolants and One of the Ways of Its Solution. 10th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. pp. 711–717. doi:10.1115/ICONE10-22330.
1 2 Woods, G.D. (November 2014). Lead isotope analysis: Removal of 204Hg isobaric interference from 204Pb using ICP-QQQ in MS/MS mode (PDF) (Report). Stockport, UK: Agilent Technologies.
↑ A. Yu. Smirnov; V. D. Borisevich; A. Sulaberidze (July 2012). "Evaluation of specific cost of obtainment of lead-208 isotope by gas centrifuges using various raw materials". Theoretical Foundations of Chemical Engineering. 46 (4): 373–378. doi:10.1134/S0040579512040161. S2CID 98821122.
↑ Blank, B.; Regan, P.H. (2000). "Magic and doubly-magic nuclei". Nuclear Physics News. 10 (4): 20–27. doi:10.1080/10506890109411553. S2CID 121966707.
↑ Kokov, K.V.; Egorova, B.V.; German, M.N.; Klabukov, I.D.; Krasheninnikov, M.E.; Larkin-Kondrov, A.A.; Makoveeva, K.A.; Ovchinnikov, M.V.; Sidorova, M.V.; Chuvilin, D.Y. (2022). "212Pb: Production Approaches and Targeted Therapy Applications". Pharmaceutics. 14 (1): 189. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14010189 . ISSN 1999-4923. PMC 8777968 . PMID 35057083.

Sources

Meija, Juris; et al. (2016). "Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry . 88 (3): 265–91. doi: 10.1515/pac-2015-0305 .

Isotope masses from:

Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001

Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.

Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.x database". Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.

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[9] Pb – Excited nuclear isomer.

[11] ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.

[TMS-12] # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).

[13] Modes of decay:
EC: Electron capture
IT: Isomeric transition

[14] Bold italics symbol as daughter – Daughter product is nearly stable.

[15] Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.

[16] ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.

[TNN-17] 1 2 # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).

[rd-18] 1 2 3 Used in lead–lead dating

[19] Believed to undergo α decay to ²⁰⁰Hg with a half-life over 1.4×10²⁰ years

[21] Final decay product of 4n+2 decay chain (the Radium or Uranium series)

[23] Experimental lower bound is $\tau _{1/2}>2.5\times 10^{21}$ years; the theoretical lifetime for α decay to ²⁰²Hg is $>10^{65}$ years.

[25] Final decay product of 4n+3 decay chain (the Actinium series)

[26] Experimental lower bound is $\tau _{1/2}>1.9\times 10^{21}$ years; the theoretical lifetime for α decay to ²⁰³Hg is $>10^{152}$ years.

[27] Heaviest observationally stable nuclide; final decay product of 4n decay chain (the Thorium series)

[28] Experimental lower bound is $\tau _{1/2}>2.6\times 10^{21}$ years; the theoretical lifetime for α decay to ²⁰⁴Hg is $>10^{124}$ years.

[ns-29] 1 2 Intermediate decay product of ²³⁷Np

[RS-30] 1 2 Intermediate decay product of ²³⁸U

[31] Intermediate decay product of ²³⁵U

[32] Intermediate decay product of ²³²Th

[NUBASE2020-1] Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.

[FOOTNOTEMeijaCoplenBerglundBrand2016-2] Meija et al. 2016.

[3] "Standard Atomic Weights: Lead". CIAAW. 2020.

[CIAAW2021-4] Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.

[5] Jeter, Hewitt W. (March 2000). "Determining the Ages of Recent Sediments Using Measurements of Trace Radioactivity" (PDF). Terra et Aqua (78): 21–28. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 23, 2019.

[magic-6] Blank, B.; Regan, P.H. (2000). "Magic and doubly-magic nuclei". Nuclear Physics News. 10 (4): 20–27. doi:10.1080/10506890109411553. S2CID 121966707.

[Takahashi_et_al-7] Takahashi, K; Boyd, R. N.; Mathews, G. J.; Yokoi, K. (October 1987). "Bound-state beta decay of highly ionized atoms". Physical Review C. 36 (4): 1522–1528. Bibcode:1987PhRvC..36.1522T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.36.1522. ISSN 0556-2813. OCLC 1639677. PMID 9954244 . Retrieved 2016-11-20. As can be seen in Table I (¹⁸⁷Re, ²¹⁰Pb, ²²⁷Ac, and ²⁴¹Pu), some continuum-state decays are energetically forbidden when the atom is fully ionized. This is because the atomic binding energies liberated by ionization, i.e., the total electron binding in the neutral atom, $B n$ , increases with $Z$ . If [the decay energy] $Q n < B n (Z +1)- B n (Z)$ , the continuum-state $β$ decay is energetically forbidden.

[NUBASE2016-8] Half-life, decay mode, nuclear spin, and isotopic composition is sourced in:
Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.

[AME2016_II-10] Wang, M.; Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Xu, X. (2017). "The AME2016 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs, and references" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030003-1–030003-442. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030003.

[CIAAW-20] 1 2 3 4 "Standard Atomic Weights: Lead". CIAAW. 2020.

[Kuhn1929-22] Kuhn, W. (1929). "LXVIII. Scattering of thorium C" γ-radiation by radium G and ordinary lead". The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 8 (52): 628. doi:10.1080/14786441108564923.

[Bellini-24] 1 2 3 Beeman, J.W.; et al. (2013). "New experimental limits on the alpha decays of lead isotopes". European Physical Journal A. 49 (4): 50. arXiv: 1212.2422 . Bibcode:2013EPJA...49...50B. doi:10.1140/epja/i2013-13050-7. S2CID 254111888.

[33] Khorasanov, G. L.; Ivanov, A. P.; Blokhin, A. I. (2002). Polonium Issue in Fast Reactor Lead Coolants and One of the Ways of Its Solution. 10th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. pp. 711–717. doi:10.1115/ICONE10-22330.

[pb204-34] 1 2 Woods, G.D. (November 2014). Lead isotope analysis: Removal of 204Hg isobaric interference from 204Pb using ICP-QQQ in MS/MS mode (PDF) (Report). Stockport, UK: Agilent Technologies.

[35] A. Yu. Smirnov; V. D. Borisevich; A. Sulaberidze (July 2012). "Evaluation of specific cost of obtainment of lead-208 isotope by gas centrifuges using various raw materials". Theoretical Foundations of Chemical Engineering. 46 (4): 373–378. doi:10.1134/S0040579512040161. S2CID 98821122.

[dmagic-36] Blank, B.; Regan, P.H. (2000). "Magic and doubly-magic nuclei". Nuclear Physics News. 10 (4): 20–27. doi:10.1080/10506890109411553. S2CID 121966707.

[37] Kokov, K.V.; Egorova, B.V.; German, M.N.; Klabukov, I.D.; Krasheninnikov, M.E.; Larkin-Kondrov, A.A.; Makoveeva, K.A.; Ovchinnikov, M.V.; Sidorova, M.V.; Chuvilin, D.Y. (2022). "212Pb: Production Approaches and Targeted Therapy Applications". Pharmaceutics. 14 (1): 189. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14010189 . ISSN 1999-4923. PMC 8777968 . PMID 35057083.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[n 1]

[9]

[n 2]

[n 3]

[n 4]

[n 5]

[n 6]

[n 7]

[n 8]

[n 9]

[n 10]

[10]

[n 11]

[11]

[n 12]

[12]

[n 13]

[n 14]

[n 15]

[n 16]

[n 17]

[n 18]

[n 19]

[n 20]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]