Isotopes of tantalum

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Isotopes of tantalum  (73Ta)
Main isotopes [1] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
177Ta synth 56.56 h β+ 177Hf
178Tasynth2.36 hβ+ 178Hf
179Tasynth1.82 y ε 179Hf
180Tasynth8.125 hε 180Hf
β− 180W
180mTa0.0120% stable
181Ta99.988%stable
182Tasynth114.43 dβ− 182W
183Tasynth5.1 dβ− 183W
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Ta)

Natural tantalum (73Ta) consists of two stable isotopes: 181Ta (99.988%) and 180m
Ta
 (0.012%).

Contents

There are also 35 known artificial radioisotopes, the longest-lived of which are 179Ta with a half-life of 1.82 years, 182Ta with a half-life of 114.43 days, 183Ta with a half-life of 5.1 days, and 177Ta with a half-life of 56.56 hours. All other isotopes have half-lives under a day, most under an hour. There are also numerous isomers, the most stable of which (other than 180mTa) is 178m1Ta with a half-life of 2.36 hours. All isotopes and nuclear isomers of tantalum are either radioactive or observationally stable, meaning that they are predicted to be radioactive but no actual decay has been observed.

Tantalum has been proposed as a "salting" material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another, better-known salting material). A jacket of 181Ta, irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the radioactive isotope 182
Ta
 with a half-life of 114.43 days and produce approximately 1.12  MeV of gamma radiation, significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout for several months. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used. [4] While the conversion factor from absorbed dose (measured in Grays) to effective dose (measured in Sievert) for gamma rays is 1 while it is 50 for alpha radiation (i.e., a gamma dose of 1 Gray is equivalent to 1 Sievert whereas an alpha dose of 1 Gray is equivalent to 50 Sievert), gamma rays are only attenuated by shielding, not stopped. As such, alpha particles require incorporation to have an effect while gamma rays can have an effect via mere proximity. In military terms, this allows a gamma ray weapon to deny an area to either side as long as the dose is high enough, whereas radioactive contamination by alpha emitters which do not release significant amounts of gamma rays can be counteracted by ensuring the material is not incorporated.

List of isotopes


Nuclide
[n 1] 		Z N Isotopic mass (Da) [5]
[n 2] [n 3] 		Half-life [1]
[n 4] 		Decay
mode [1]
[n 5] 		Daughter
isotope
[n 6] [n 7] 		Spin and
parity [1]
[n 8] [n 4] 		Natural abundance (mole fraction)
Excitation energy [n 4] Normal proportion [1] Range of variation
155Ta7382154.97425(32)#3.2(13) ms p 154Hf11/2−
156Ta7383155 97209(32)#106(4) msp (71%)155Hf(2−)
β+ (29%)156Hf
156mTa94(8) keV360(40) msβ+ (95.8%)156Hf(9+)
p (4.2%)155Hf
157Ta7384156.96823(16)10.1(4) ms α (96.6%)153Lu1/2+
p (3.4%)156Hf
157m1Ta22(5) keV4.3(1) msα153Lu11/2−
157m2Ta1593(9) keV1.7(1) msα153Lu25/2−#
158Ta7385157.96659(22)#49(4) msα154Lu(2)−
158m1Ta141(11) keV36.0(8) msα (95%)154Lu(9)+
158m2Ta2808(16) keV6.1(1) μs IT (98.6%)158Ta(19−)
α (1.4%)154Lu
159Ta7386158.963028(21)1.04(9) sβ+ (66%)159Hf1/2+
α (34%)155Lu
159mTa64(5) keV560(60) msα (55%)155Lu11/2−
β+ (45%)159Hf
160Ta7387159.961542(58)1.70(20) sα156Lu(2)−
160mTa [n 9] 110(250) keV1.55(4) sα156Lu(9,10)+
161Ta7388160.958369(26)3# s(1/2+)
161mTa [n 9] 61(23) keV3.08(11) sβ+ (93%)161Hf(11/2−)
α (7%)157Lu
162Ta7389161.957293(68)3.57(12) sβ+ (99.93%)162Hf3−#
α (0.074%)158Lu
162mTa [n 9] 120(50)# keV5# s7+#
163Ta7390162.954337(41)10.6(18) sβ+ (99.8%)163Hf1/2+
163mTa138(18)# keV10# s9/2−
164Ta7391163.953534(30)14.2(3) sβ+164Hf(3+)
165Ta7392164.950780(15)31.0(15) sβ+165Hf(1/2+,3/2+)
165mTa [n 9] 24(18) keV30# s(9/2−)
166Ta7393165.950512(30)34.4(5) sβ+166Hf(2)+
167Ta7394166.948093(30)1.33(7) minβ+167Hf(3/2+)
168Ta7395167.948047(30)2.0(1) minβ+168Hf(3+)
169Ta7396168.946011(30)4.9(4) minβ+169Hf(5/2+)
170Ta7397169.946175(30)6.76(6) minβ+170Hf(3+)
171Ta7398170.944476(30)23.3(3) minβ+171Hf(5/2+)
172Ta7399171.944895(30)36.8(3) minβ+172Hf(3+)
173Ta73100172.943750(30)3.14(13) hβ+173Hf5/2−
173m1Ta173.10(21) keV205.2(56) nsIT173Ta9/2−
173m1Ta1717.2(4) keV132(3) nsIT173Ta21/2−
174Ta73101173.944454(30)1.14(8) hβ+174Hf3+
175Ta73102174.943737(30)10.5(2) hβ+175Hf7/2+
175m1Ta131.41(17) keV222(8) nsIT175Ta9/2−
175m2Ta339.2(13) keV170(20) nsIT175Ta(1/2+)
175m3Ta1567.6(3) keV1.95(15) μsIT175Ta21/2−
176Ta73103175.944857(33)8.09(5) hβ+176Hf(1)−
176m1Ta103.0(10) keV1.08(7) msIT176Ta7+
176m2Ta1474.0(14) keV3.8(4) μsIT176Ta14−
176m3Ta2874.0(14) keV0.97(7) msIT176Ta20−
177Ta73104176.9444819(36)56.36(13) hβ+177Hf7/2+
177m1Ta73.16(7) keV410(7) nsIT177Ta9/2−
177m2Ta186.16(6) keV3.62(10) μsIT177Ta5/2−
177m3Ta1354.8(3) keV5.30(11) μsIT177Ta21/2−
177m4Ta4656.3(8) keV133(4) μsIT177Ta49/2−
178Ta73105177.945680(56)#2.36(8) hβ+178Hf7−
178m1Ta [n 9] 100(50)# keV9.31(3) minβ+178Hf(1+)
178m2Ta1467.82(16) keV59(3) msIT178Ta15−
178m3Ta2901.9(7) keV290(12) msIT178Ta21−
179Ta73106178.9459391(16)1.82(3) y EC 179Hf7/2+
179m1Ta30.7(1) keV1.42(8) μsIT179Ta9/2−
179m2Ta520.23(18) keV280(80) nsIT179Ta1/2+
179m3Ta1252.60(23) keV322(16) nsIT179Ta21/2−
179m4Ta1317.2(4) keV9.0(2) msIT179Ta25/2+
179m5Ta1328.0(4) keV1.6(4) μsIT179Ta23/2−
179m6Ta2639.3(5) keV54.1(17) msIT179Ta37/2+
180Ta73107179.9474676(22)8.154(6) hEC (85%)180Hf1+
β− (15%)180W
180m1Ta75.3(14) keVObservationally stable [n 10] [n 11] 9−1.201(32)×10−4
180m2Ta1452.39(22) keV31.2(14) μsIT15−
180m3Ta3678.9(10) keV2.0(5) μsIT(22−)
180m4Ta4172.2(16) keV17(5) μsIT(24+)
181Ta73108180.9479985(17)Observationally stable [n 12] 7/2+0.9998799(32)
181m1Ta6.237(20) keV6.05(12) μsIT181Ta9/2−
181m2Ta615.19(3) keV18(1) μsIT181Ta1/2+
181m3Ta1428(14) keV140(36) nsIT181Ta19/2+#
181m4Ta1483.43(21) keV25.2(18) μsIT181Ta21/2−
181m5Ta2227.9(9) keV210(20) μsIT181Ta29/2−
182Ta73109181.9501546(17)114.74(12) dβ−182W3−
182m1Ta16.273(4) keV283(3) msIT182Ta5+
182m2Ta519.577(16) keV15.84(10) minIT182Ta10−
183Ta73110182.9513754(17)5.1(1) dβ−183W7/2+
183m1Ta73.164(14) keV106(10) nsIT183Ta9/2−
183m2Ta1335(14) keV0.9(3) μsIT183Ta(19/2+)
184Ta73111183.954010(28)8.7(1) hβ−184W(5−)
185Ta73112184.955561(15)49.4(15) minβ−185W(7/2+)
185m1Ta406(1) keV0.9(3) μsIT185Ta(3/2+)
185m2Ta1273.4(4) keV11.8(14) msIT185Ta21/2−
186Ta73113185.958553(64)10.5(3) minβ−186W3#
186mTa336(20) keV1.54(5) min9+#
187Ta73114186.960391(60)2.3(60) minβ−187W(7/2+)
187m1Ta1778(1) keV7.3(9) sIT187Ta(25/2−)
187m2Ta2935(14) keV>5 min41/2+#
188Ta73115187.96360(22)#19.6(20) sβ−188W(1−)
188m1Ta99(33) keV19.6(20) s(7−)
188m2Ta391(33) keV3.6(4) μsIT188Ta10+#
189Ta73116188.96569(22)#20# s
[>300 ns]		β−189W7/2+#
189mTa1650(100)# keV1.6(2) μsIT189Ta21/2−#
190Ta73117189.96917(22)#5.3(7) sβ−190W(3)
191Ta73118190.97153(32)#460# ms
[>300 ns]		7/2+#
192Ta73119191.97520(43)#2.2(7) sβ−192W(2)
193Ta73120192.97766(43)#220# ms
[>300 ns]		7/2+#
194Ta73121193.98161(54)#2# s
[>300 ns]
This table header & footer:
  1. ↑ mTa – Excited nuclear isomer.
  2. ↑ ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
  3. ↑ # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
  4. 1 2 3 # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
  5. ↑ Modes of decay:
    EC: Electron capture
    IT: Isomeric transition
    p: Proton emission
  6. ↑ Bold italics symbol as daughter – Daughter product is nearly stable.
  7. ↑ Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
  8. ↑ ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Order of ground state and isomer is uncertain.
  10. ↑ Only known observationally stable nuclear isomer, believed to decay by isomeric transition to 180Ta, β− decay to 180W, or electron capture to 180Hf with a half-life over 2.9×1017 years; [6] also theorized to undergo α decay to 176Lu
  11. ↑ One of the few (observationally) stable odd-odd nuclei
  12. ↑ Believed to undergo α decay to 177Lu

Tantalum-180m

The nuclide 180m
Ta
 (m denotes a metastable state) is one of a very few nuclear isomers which are more stable than their ground states. Although it is not unique in this regard (this property is shared by bismuth-210m (210mBi) and americium-242m (242mAm), among other nuclides), it is exceptional in that it is observationally stable: no decay has ever been observed. In contrast, the ground state nuclide 180
Ta
 has a half-life of only 8 hours.

180m
Ta
 has sufficient energy to decay in three ways: isomeric transition to the ground state of 180
Ta
, beta decay to 180
W
, or electron capture to 180
Hf
. However, no radioactivity from any of these theoretically possible decay modes has ever been observed. As of 2023, the half-life of 180mTa is calculated from experimental observation to be at least 2.9×1017 (290 quadrillion) years. [6] [7] [8] The very slow decay of 180m
Ta
 is attributed to its high spin (9 units) and the low spin of lower-lying states. Gamma or beta decay would require many units of angular momentum to be removed in a single step, so that the process would be very slow. [9]

Because of this stability, 180m
Ta
 is a primordial nuclide, the only naturally occurring nuclear isomer (excluding short-lived radiogenic and cosmogenic nuclides). It is also the rarest primordial nuclide in the Universe observed for any element which has any stable isotopes. In an s-process stellar environment with a thermal energy kBT = 26  keV (i.e. a temperature of 300 million kelvin), the nuclear isomers are expected to be fully thermalized, meaning that 180Ta rapidly transitions between spin states and its overall half-life is predicted to be 11 hours. [10]

It is one of only five stable nuclides to have both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons, the other four stable odd-odd nuclides being 2H, 6Li, 10B and 14N. [11]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stable nuclide</span> Nuclide that does not undergo radioactive decay

Stable nuclides are isotopes of a chemical element whose nucleons are in a configuration that does not permit them the surplus energy required to produce a radioactive emission. The nuclei of such isotopes are not radioactive and unlike radionuclides do not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay. When these nuclides are referred to in relation to specific elements they are usually called that element's stable isotopes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear isomer</span> Metastable excited state of a nuclide

A nuclear isomer is a metastable state of an atomic nucleus, in which one or more nucleons (protons or neutrons) occupy excited state (higher energy) levels. "Metastable" describes nuclei whose excited states have half-lives 100 to 1000 times longer than the half-lives of the excited nuclear states that decay with a "prompt" half life (ordinarily on the order of 10−12 seconds). The term "metastable" is usually restricted to isomers with half-lives of 10−9 seconds or longer. Some references recommend 5 × 10−9 seconds to distinguish the metastable half life from the normal "prompt" gamma-emission half-life. Occasionally the half-lives are far longer than this and can last minutes, hours, or years. For example, the 180m
73Ta
 nuclear isomer survives so long (at least 1015 years) that it has never been observed to decay spontaneously. The half-life of a nuclear isomer can even exceed that of the ground state of the same nuclide, as shown by 180m
73Ta
 as well as 186m
75Re
, 192m2
77Ir
, 210m
83Bi
, 212m
84Po
, 242m
95Am
 and multiple holmium isomers.

Fluorine (9F) has 19 known isotopes ranging from 13
F
 to 31
F
 and two isomers. Only fluorine-19 is stable and naturally occurring in more than trace quantities; therefore, fluorine is a monoisotopic and mononuclidic element.

Protactinium (91Pa) has no stable isotopes. The four naturally occurring isotopes allow a standard atomic weight to be given.

Radium (88Ra) has no stable or nearly stable isotopes, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. The longest lived, and most common, isotope of radium is 226Ra with a half-life of 1600 years. 226Ra occurs in the decay chain of 238U. Radium has 34 known isotopes from 201Ra to 234Ra.

Bismuth (83Bi) has 41 known isotopes, ranging from 184Bi to 224Bi. Bismuth has no stable isotopes, but does have one very long-lived isotope; thus, the standard atomic weight can be given as 208.98040(1). Although bismuth-209 is now known to be radioactive, it has classically been considered to be a stable isotope because it has a half-life of approximately 2.01×1019 years, which is more than a billion times the age of the universe. Besides 209Bi, the most stable bismuth radioisotopes are 210mBi with a half-life of 3.04 million years, 208Bi with a half-life of 368,000 years and 207Bi, with a half-life of 32.9 years, none of which occurs in nature. All other isotopes have half-lives under 1 year, most under a day. Of naturally occurring radioisotopes, the most stable is radiogenic 210Bi with a half-life of 5.012 days. 210mBi is unusual for being a nuclear isomer with a half-life multiple orders of magnitude longer than that of the ground state.

There are two natural isotopes of iridium (77Ir), and 37 radioisotopes, the most stable radioisotope being 192Ir with a half-life of 73.83 days, and many nuclear isomers, the most stable of which is 192m2Ir with a half-life of 241 years. All other isomers have half-lives under a year, most under a day. All isotopes of iridium are either radioactive or observationally stable, meaning that they are predicted to be radioactive but no actual decay has been observed.

Naturally occurring rhenium (75Re) is 37.4% 185Re, which is stable (although it is predicted to decay), and 62.6% 187Re, which is unstable but has a very long half-life (4.12×1010 years). Among elements with a known stable isotope, only indium and tellurium similarly occur with a stable isotope in lower abundance than the long-lived radioactive isotope.

Natural hafnium (72Hf) consists of five observationally stable isotopes (176Hf, 177Hf, 178Hf, 179Hf, and 180Hf) and one very long-lived radioisotope, 174Hf, with a half-life of 7.0×1016 years. In addition, there are 34 known synthetic radioisotopes, the most stable of which is 182Hf with a half-life of 8.9×106 years. This extinct radionuclide is used in hafnium–tungsten dating to study the chronology of planetary differentiation.

There are 39 known isotopes and 17 nuclear isomers of tellurium (52Te), with atomic masses that range from 104 to 142. These are listed in the table below.

Indium (49In) consists of two primordial nuclides, with the most common (~ 95.7%) nuclide (115In) being measurably though weakly radioactive. Its spin-forbidden decay has a half-life of 4.41×1014 years, much longer than the currently accepted age of the Universe.

Technetium (43Tc) is one of the two elements with Z < 83 that have no stable isotopes; the other such element is promethium. It is primarily artificial, with only trace quantities existing in nature produced by spontaneous fission or neutron capture by molybdenum. The first isotopes to be synthesized were 97Tc and 99Tc in 1936, the first artificial element to be produced. The most stable radioisotopes are 97Tc, 98Tc, and 99Tc.

Naturally occurring chromium (24Cr) is composed of four stable isotopes; 50Cr, 52Cr, 53Cr, and 54Cr with 52Cr being the most abundant (83.789% natural abundance). 50Cr is suspected of decaying by β+β+ to 50Ti with a half-life of (more than) 1.8×1017 years. Twenty-two radioisotopes, all of which are entirely synthetic, have been characterized, the most stable being 51Cr with a half-life of 27.7 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 24 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has two meta states, 45mCr, the more stable one, and 59mCr, the least stable isotope or isomer.

Natural nitrogen (7N) consists of two stable isotopes: the vast majority (99.6%) of naturally occurring nitrogen is nitrogen-14, with the remainder being nitrogen-15. Thirteen radioisotopes are also known, with atomic masses ranging from 9 to 23, along with three nuclear isomers. All of these radioisotopes are short-lived, the longest-lived being nitrogen-13 with a half-life of 9.965(4) min. All of the others have half-lives below 7.15 seconds, with most of these being below 620 milliseconds. Most of the isotopes with atomic mass numbers below 14 decay to isotopes of carbon, while most of the isotopes with masses above 15 decay to isotopes of oxygen. The shortest-lived known isotope is nitrogen-10, with a half-life of 143(36) yoctoseconds, though the half-life of nitrogen-9 has not been measured exactly.

Americium (95Am) is an artificial element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no known stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 241Am in 1944. The artificial element decays by ejecting alpha particles. Americium has an atomic number of 95. Despite 243
Am being an order of magnitude longer lived than 241
Am, the former is harder to obtain than the latter as more of it is present in spent nuclear fuel.

Curium (96Cm) is an artificial element with an atomic number of 96. Because it is an artificial element, a standard atomic weight cannot be given, and it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope synthesized was 242Cm in 1944, which has 146 neutrons.

Einsteinium (99Es) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be discovered was 253Es in 1952. There are 18 known radioisotopes from 240Es to 257Es, and 4 nuclear isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 252Es with a half-life of 471.7 days, or around 1.293 years.

Yrast is a technical term in nuclear physics that refers to a state of a nucleus with a minimum of energy for a given angular momentum. Yr is a Swedish adjective sharing the same root as the English whirl. Yrast is the superlative of yr and can be translated whirlingest, although it literally means "dizziest" or "most bewildered". The yrast levels are vital to understanding reactions, such as off-center heavy ion collisions, that result in high-spin states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Isotope</span> Different atoms of the same element

Isotopes are distinct nuclear species of the same chemical element. They have the same atomic number and position in the periodic table, but different nucleon numbers due to different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. While all isotopes of a given element have similar chemical properties, they have different atomic masses and physical properties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Even and odd atomic nuclei</span> Nuclear physics classification method

In nuclear physics, properties of a nucleus depend on evenness or oddness of its atomic number Z, neutron number N and, consequently, of their sum, the mass number A. Most importantly, oddness of both Z and N tends to lower the nuclear binding energy, making odd nuclei generally less stable. This effect is not only experimentally observed, but is included in the semi-empirical mass formula and explained by some other nuclear models, such as the nuclear shell model. This difference of nuclear binding energy between neighbouring nuclei, especially of odd-A isobars, has important consequences for beta decay.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
  2. ↑ "Standard Atomic Weights: Tantalum". CIAAW. 2005.
  3. ↑ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN   1365-3075.
  4. ↑ D. T. Win; M. Al Masum (2003). "Weapons of Mass Destruction" (PDF). Assumption University Journal of Technology . 6 (4): 199–219.
  5. ↑ Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf.
  6. 1 2 Arnquist, I. J.; Avignone III, F. T.; Barabash, A. S.; Barton, C. J.; Bhimani, K. H.; Blalock, E.; Bos, B.; Busch, M.; Buuck, M.; Caldwell, T. S.; Christofferson, C. D.; Chu, P.-H.; Clark, M. L.; Cuesta, C.; Detwiler, J. A.; Efremenko, Yu.; Ejiri, H.; Elliott, S. R.; Giovanetti, G. K.; Goett, J.; Green, M. P.; Gruszko, J.; Guinn, I. S.; Guiseppe, V. E.; Haufe, C. R.; Henning, R.; Aguilar, D. Hervas; Hoppe, E. W.; Hostiuc, A.; Kim, I.; Kouzes, R. T.; Lannen V., T. E.; Li, A.; López-Castaño, J. M.; Massarczyk, R.; Meijer, S. J.; Meijer, W.; Oli, T. K.; Paudel, L. S.; Pettus, W.; Poon, A. W. P.; Radford, D. C.; Reine, A. L.; Rielage, K.; Rouyer, A.; Ruof, N. W.; Schaper, D. C.; Schleich, S. J.; Smith-Gandy, T. A.; Tedeschi, D.; Thompson, J. D.; Varner, R. L.; Vasilyev, S.; Watkins, S. L.; Wilkerson, J. F.; Wiseman, C.; Xu, W.; Yu, C.-H. (13 October 2023). "Constraints on the Decay of 180mTa". Phys. Rev. Lett. 131 (15) 152501. arXiv: 2306.01965 . doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.131.152501.
  7. ↑ Conover, Emily (2016-10-03). "Rarest nucleus reluctant to decay". Science News . Retrieved 2016-10-05.
  8. ↑ Lehnert, Björn; Hult, Mikael; Lutter, Guillaume; Zuber, Kai (2017). "Search for the decay of nature's rarest isotope 180mTa". Physical Review C. 95 (4) 044306. arXiv: 1609.03725 . Bibcode:2017PhRvC..95d4306L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.95.044306. S2CID   118497863.
  9. ↑ Quantum mechanics for engineers Leon van Dommelen, Florida State University
  10. ↑ P. Mohr; F. Kaeppeler; R. Gallino (2007). "Survival of Nature's Rarest Isotope 180Ta under Stellar Conditions". Phys. Rev. C. 75 012802. arXiv: astro-ph/0612427 . doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.75.012802. S2CID   44724195.
  11. ↑ Lide, David R., ed. (2002). Handbook of Chemistry & Physics (88th ed.). CRC. ISBN   978-0-8493-0486-6. OCLC   179976746. Archived from the original on 24 July 2017. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
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