Isotopes of copernicium

Isotopes of copernicium  (₁₁₂Cn)

Main isotopes [1] Decay abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct 283Cn synth 3.81 s [2] α 96% 279Ds SF 4% – ε? 283Rg 285Cn synth 30 s α 281Ds 286Cn synth 8.4 s? SF –

view talk edit

Copernicium (₁₁₂Cn) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was ²⁷⁷Cn in 1996. There are seven known radioisotopes (with one more unconfirmed); the longest-lived isotope is ²⁸⁵Cn with a half-life of 30 seconds.

List of isotopes

Nuclide	Z	N	Isotopic mass (Da) [n 1] [n 2]	Half-life [1]	Decay mode [1] [n 3]	Daughter isotope	Spin and parity [1] [n 4]
277Cn	112	165	277.16354(17)#	790(330) μs	α	273Ds	3/2+#
280Cn [3] [n 5]	112	168	280.16710(63)#	<100 μs	SF	(various)	0+
281Cn [n 6]	112	169	281.16956(43)#	180+100 −40 ms [4]	α	277Ds	3/2+#
282Cn	112	170	282.17051(59)#	0.83+0.18 −0.13 ms [2]	SF	(various)	0+
283Cn	112	171	283.17320(66)#	3.81+0.45 −0.36 s [2]	α (96%) [2]	279Ds
					SF (4%)	(various)
					EC?	283Rg
284Cn [n 7]	112	172	284.17436(82)#	121+20 −15 ms [5]	SF (98%)	(various)	0+
					α (2%) [5]	280Ds
285Cn [n 8]	112	173	285.17723(54)#	30(8) s	α	281Ds	5/2+#
286Cn [6] [n 9] [n 10]	112	174	286.17869(75)#	8.4+40.5 −3.9 s	SF	(various)	0+
This table header & footer: view

1. ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
2. # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
3. Modes of decay:

   EC:	Electron capture
   SF:	Spontaneous fission

4. # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
5. Not directly synthesized, created as decay product of ²⁸⁸Lv
6. Not directly synthesized, created as decay product of ²⁸⁵Fl
7. Not directly synthesized, created as decay product of ²⁸⁸Fl
8. Not directly synthesized, created as decay product of ²⁸⁹Fl
9. Not directly synthesized, created as decay product of ²⁹⁴Lv
10. This isotope is unconfirmed

Isotopes and nuclear properties

Nucleosynthesis

Superheavy elements such as copernicium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induces fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of copernicium can be synthesized directly this way, some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic numbers. ^[7]

Depending on the energies involved, the former are separated into "hot" and "cold". In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets such as actinides, giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50  MeV) that may either fission or evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons. ^[7] In cold fusion reactions, the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the ground state, they require emission of only one or two neutrons, and thus, allows for the generation of more neutron-rich products. ^[8] The latter is a distinct concept from that of where nuclear fusion claimed to be achieved at room temperature conditions (see cold fusion). ^[9]

The table below contains various combinations of targets and projectiles which could be used to form compound nuclei with Z = 112.

Target	Projectile	CN	Attempt result
184W	88Sr	272Cn	Failure to date
208Pb	68Zn	276Cn	Failure to date
208Pb	70Zn	278Cn	Successful reaction
233U	48Ca	281Cn	Failure to date
234U	48Ca	282Cn	Reaction yet to be attempted
235U	48Ca	283Cn	Reaction yet to be attempted
236U	48Ca	284Cn	Reaction yet to be attempted
238U	48Ca	286Cn	Successful reaction
244Pu	40Ar	284Cn	Reaction yet to be attempted
250Cm	36S	286Cn	Reaction yet to be attempted
248Cm	36S	284Cn	Reaction yet to be attempted
252Cf	30Si	282Cn	Reaction yet to be attempted

Cold fusion

The first cold fusion reaction to produce copernicium was performed by GSI in 1996, who reported the detection of two decay chains of copernicium-277. ^[10]

²⁰⁸
₈₂Pb
+ ⁷⁰
₃₀Zn
→ ²⁷⁷
₁₁₂Cn
+
n

In a review of the data in 2000, the first decay chain was retracted. In a repeat of the reaction in 2000 they were able to synthesize a further atom. They attempted to measure the 1n excitation function in 2002 but suffered from a failure of the zinc-70 beam. The unofficial discovery of copernicium-277 was confirmed in 2004 at RIKEN, where researchers detected a further two atoms of the isotope and were able to confirm the decay data for the entire chain. ^[11] This reaction had also previously been tried in 1971 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia in an effort to produce ²⁷⁶Cn in the 2n channel, but without success. ^[12]

After the successful synthesis of copernicium-277, the GSI team performed a reaction using a ⁶⁸Zn projectile in 1997 in an effort to study the effect of isospin (neutron richness) on the chemical yield.

²⁰⁸
₈₂Pb
+ ⁶⁸
₃₀Zn
→ ^276−x
₁₁₂Cn
+ x
n

The experiment was initiated after the discovery of a yield enhancement during the synthesis of darmstadtium isotopes using nickel-62 and nickel-64 ions. No decay chains of copernicium-275 were detected leading to a cross section limit of 1.2  picobarns (pb). However, the revision of the yield for the zinc-70 reaction to 0.5 pb does not rule out a similar yield for this reaction.

In 1990, after some early indications for the formation of isotopes of copernicium in the irradiation of a tungsten target with multi-GeV protons, a collaboration between GSI and the Hebrew University studied the foregoing reaction.

¹⁸⁴
₇₄W
+ ⁸⁸
₃₈Sr
→ ^272−x
₁₁₂Cn
+ x
n

They were able to detect some spontaneous fission (SF) activity and a 12.5 MeV alpha decay, both of which they tentatively assigned to the radiative capture product copernicium-272 or the 1n evaporation residue copernicium-271. Both the TWG and JWP have concluded that a lot more research is required to confirm these conclusions. ^[7]

Hot fusion

In 1998, the team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Research (FLNR) in Dubna, Russia began a research program using calcium-48 nuclei in "warm" fusion reactions leading to super-heavy elements. In March 1998, they claimed to have synthesized two atoms of the element in the following reaction.

²³⁸
₉₂U
+ ⁴⁸
₂₀Ca
→ ^286−x
₁₁₂Cn
+ x
n
(x=3,4)

The product, copernicium-283, had a claimed half-life of 5 minutes, decaying by spontaneous fission. ^[13]

The long half-life of the product initiated first chemical experiments on the gas phase atomic chemistry of copernicium. In 2000, Yuri Yukashev in Dubna repeated the experiment but was unable to observe any spontaneous fission events with half-life of 5 minutes. The experiment was repeated in 2001 and an accumulation of eight fragments resulting from spontaneous fission were found in the low-temperature section, indicating that copernicium had radon-like properties. However, there is now some serious doubt about the origin of these results. To confirm the synthesis, the reaction was successfully repeated by the same team in January 2003, confirming the decay mode and half-life. They were also able to calculate an estimate of the mass of the spontaneous fission activity to ~285, lending support to the assignment. ^[14]

The team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) in Berkeley, United States entered the debate and performed the reaction in 2002. They were unable to detect any spontaneous fission and calculated a cross section limit of 1.6 pb for the detection of a single event. ^[15]

The reaction was repeated in 2003–2004 by the team at Dubna using a slightly different set-up, the Dubna Gas-Filled Recoil Separator (DGFRS). This time, copernicium-283 was found to decay by emission of a 9.53 MeV alpha-particle with a half-life of 4 seconds. Copernicium-282 was also observed in the 4n channel (emitting 4 neutrons). ^[16]

In 2003, the team at GSI entered the debate and performed a search for the five-minute SF activity in chemical experiments. Like the Dubna team, they were able to detect seven SF fragments in the low temperature section. However, these SF events were uncorrelated, suggesting they were not from actual direct SF of copernicium nuclei and raised doubts about the original indications for radon-like properties. ^[17] After the announcement from Dubna of different decay properties for copernicium-283, the GSI team repeated the experiment in September 2004. They were unable to detect any SF events and calculated a cross section limit of ~1.6 pb for the detection of one event, not in contradiction with the reported 2.5 pb yield by Dubna team.

In May 2005, the GSI performed a physical experiment and identified a single atom of ²⁸³Cn decaying by SF with a short half-time suggesting a previously unknown SF branch. ^[18] However, initial work by Dubna team had detected several direct SF events but had assumed that the parent alpha decay had been missed. These results indicated that this was not the case.

The new decay data on copernicium-283 were confirmed in 2006 by a joint PSI–FLNR experiment aimed at probing the chemical properties of copernicium. Two atoms of copernicium-283 were observed in the decay of the parent flerovium-287 nuclei. The experiment indicated that contrary to previous experiments, copernicium behaves as a typical member of group 12, demonstrating properties of a volatile metal. ^[19]

Finally, the team at GSI successfully repeated their physical experiment in January 2007, and detected three atoms of copernicium-283, confirming both the alpha and SF decay modes. ^[20]

As such, the 5-minute SF activity is still unconfirmed and unidentified. It is possible that it refers to an isomer, namely copernicium-283b, whose yield is dependent upon the exact production methods. It is also possible that it is the result of an electron capture branch in ²⁸³Cn leading to ²⁸³Rg, which would necessitate a reassignment of its parent to ²⁸⁷Nh (the electron-capture daughter of ²⁸⁷Fl). ^[21]

²³³
₉₂U
+ ⁴⁸
₂₀Ca
→ ^281−x
₁₁₂Cn
+ x
n

The team at FLNR studied this reaction in 2004. They were unable to detect any atoms of copernicium and calculated a cross section limit of 0.6 pb. The team concluded that this indicated that the neutron mass number for the compound nucleus has an effect on the yield of evaporation residues. ^[16]

Decay products

List of copernicium isotopes observed by decay

Evaporation residue	Observed copernicium isotope
288Lv, 284Fl	280Cn [3]
289Lv, 285Fl	281Cn [3] [22]
294Og, 290Lv, 286Fl	282Cn [23]
291Lv, 287Fl	283Cn [24]
292Lv, 288Fl	284Cn [25]
293Lv, 289Fl	285Cn [26]
294Lv, 290Fl ?	286Cn ? [6]

Copernicium has been observed as decay products of flerovium. Flerovium currently has seven known isotopes, all of which have been shown to undergo alpha decays to become copernicium nuclei, with mass numbers between 280 and 286. Copernicium isotopes with mass numbers 280, 281, 284, 285, and 286 to date have only been produced by flerovium nuclei decay. Parent flerovium nuclei can be themselves decay products of livermorium or oganesson. ^[27]

For example, in May 2006, the Dubna team (JINR) identified copernicium-282 as a final product in the decay of oganesson via the alpha decay sequence. It was found that the final nucleus undergoes spontaneous fission. ^[23]

²⁹⁴
₁₁₈Og
→ ²⁹⁰
₁₁₆Lv
+ ⁴
₂He

²⁹⁰
₁₁₆Lv
→ ²⁸⁶
₁₁₄Fl
+ ⁴
₂He

²⁸⁶
₁₁₄Fl
→ ²⁸²
₁₁₂Cn
+ ⁴
₂He

In the claimed synthesis of oganesson-293 in 1999, copernicium-281 was identified as decaying by emission of a 10.68 MeV alpha particle with half-life 0.90 ms. ^[28] The claim was retracted in 2001. This isotope was finally created in 2010 and its decay properties contradicted the previous data. ^[22]

Nuclear isomerism

First experiments on the synthesis of ²⁸³Cn produced a SF activity with half-life ~5 min. ^[27] This activity was also observed from the alpha decay of flerovium-287. The decay mode and half-life were also confirmed in a repetition of the first experiment. Later, copernicium-283 was observed to undergo 9.52 MeV alpha decay and SF with a half-life of 3.9 s. It has also been found that alpha decay of copernicium-283 leads to different excited states of darmstadtium-279. ^[16] These results suggest the assignment of the two activities to two different isomeric levels in copernicium-283, creating copernicium-283a and copernicium-283b. This result may also be due to an electron-capture branching of the parent ²⁸⁷Fl to ²⁸⁷Nh, so that the longer-lived activity would be assigned to ²⁸³Rg. ^[21]

Copernicium-285 has only been observed as a decay product of flerovium-289 and livermorium-293; during the first recorded synthesis of flerovium, one flerovium-289 was created, which alpha decayed to copernicium-285, which itself emitted an alpha particle in 29 seconds, releasing 9.15 or 9.03 MeV. ^[16] However, in the first experiment to successfully synthesize livermorium, when livermorium-293 was created, it was shown that the created nuclide alpha decayed to flerovium-289, decay data for which differed from the known values significantly. Although unconfirmed, it is highly possible that this is associated with an isomer. The resulting nuclide decayed to copernicium-285, which emitted an alpha particle with a half-life of around 10 minutes, releasing 8.586 MeV. Similar to its parent, it is believed to be a nuclear isomer, copernicium-285b. ^[29] Due to the low beam energies associated with the initial ²⁴⁴Pu+⁴⁸Ca experiment, it is possible that the 2n channel may have been reached, producing ²⁹⁰Fl instead of ²⁸⁹Fl; this would then undergo undetected electron capture to ²⁹⁰Nh, thus resulting in a reassignment of this activity to its alpha daughter ²⁸⁶Rg. ^[30]

Summary of observed alpha decay chains from superheavy elements with Z = 114, 116, 118, or 120 as of 2016. Assignments for dotted nuclides (including the early Dubna chains 5 and 8 containing Nh and Nh as alternative explanations instead of isomerism in Fl and Fl) are tentative. According to another analysis, chain 3 (starting at element 120) is not a real decay chain, but is rather a random sequence of events.

Chemical yields of isotopes

Cold fusion

The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing copernicium isotopes directly. Data in bold represent maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.

Projectile	Target	CN	1n	2n	3n
70Zn	208Pb	278Cn	0.5 pb, 10.0, 12.0 MeV +
68Zn	208Pb	276Cn	<1.2 pb, 11.3, 12.8 MeV

Hot fusion

The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for hot fusion reactions producing copernicium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.

Projectile	Target	CN	3n	4n	5n
48Ca	238U	286Cn	2.5 pb, 35.0 MeV +	0.6 pb
48Ca	233U	281Cn	<0.6 pb, 34.9 MeV

Fission of compound nuclei with atomic number 112

Several experiments have been performed between 2001 and 2004 at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission characteristics of the compound nucleus ²⁸⁶Cn. The nuclear reaction used is ²³⁸U+⁴⁸Ca. The results have revealed how nuclei such as this fission predominantly by expelling closed shell nuclei such as ¹³²Sn (Z = 50, N = 82). It was also found that the yield for the fusion-fission pathway was similar between ⁴⁸Ca and ⁵⁸Fe projectiles, indicating a possible future use of ⁵⁸Fe projectiles in superheavy element formation. ^[32]

Theoretical calculations

Evaporation residue cross sections

The below table contains various targets-projectile combinations for which calculations have provided estimates for cross section yields from various neutron evaporation channels. The channel with the highest expected yield is given.

DNS = Di-nuclear system; σ = cross section

Target	Projectile	Cn	Channel (product)	σmax	Model	Ref
208Pb	70Zn	278Cn	1n (277Cn)	1.5 pb	DNS	[33]
208Pb	67Zn	275Cn	1n (274Cn)	2 pb	DNS	[33]
238U	48Ca	286Cn	4n (282Cn)	0.2 pb	DNS	[34]
235U	48Ca	283Cn	3n (280Cn)	50 fb	DNS	[35]
238U	44Ca	282Cn	4–5n (278,277Cn)	23 fb	DNS	[35]
244Pu	40Ar	284Cn	4n (280Cn)	0.1 pb; 9.84 fb	DNS	[34] [36]
250Cm	36S	286Cn	4n (282Cn)	5 pb; 0.24 pb	DNS	[34] [36]
248Cm	36S	284Cn	4n (280Cn)	35 fb	DNS	[36]
252Cf	30Si	282Cn	3n (279Cn)	10 pb	DNS	[34]

References

1. Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
2. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Ibadullayev, D.; et al. (2022). "Investigation of ⁴⁸Ca-induced reactions with ²⁴²Pu and ²³⁸U targets at the JINR Superheavy Element Factory". Physical Review C. 106 (24612). Bibcode:2022PhRvC.106b4612O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.106.024612. S2CID   251759318.
3. Ibadullayev, Dastan (2024). "Synthesis and study of the decay properties of isotopes of superheavy element Lv in Reactions ²³⁸U + ⁵⁴Cr and ²⁴²Pu + ⁵⁰Ti". jinr.ru. Joint Institute for Nuclear Research . Retrieved 2 November 2024.
4. Utyonkov, V. K.; Brewer, N. T.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (30 January 2018). "Neutron-deficient superheavy nuclei obtained in the ²⁴⁰Pu+⁴⁸Ca reaction". Physical Review C. 97 (14320): 014320. Bibcode:2018PhRvC..97a4320U. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.97.014320 .
5. Såmark-Roth, A.; Cox, D. M.; Rudolph, D.; et al. (2021). "Spectroscopy along Flerovium Decay Chains: Discovery of ²⁸⁰Ds and an Excited State in ²⁸²Cn". Physical Review Letters. 126 (3): 032503. Bibcode:2021PhRvL.126c2503S. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.032503 . hdl: 10486/705608 . PMID   33543956.
6. Kaji, Daiya; Morita, Kosuke; Morimoto, Kouji; et al. (2017). "Study of the Reaction ⁴⁸Ca + ²⁴⁸Cm → ²⁹⁶Lv* at RIKEN-GARIS". Journal of the Physical Society of Japan. 86 (3): 034201–1–7. Bibcode:2017JPSJ...86c4201K. doi:10.7566/JPSJ.86.034201.
7. Barber, R. C.; et al. (2009). "Discovery of the element with atomic number 112" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry . 81 (7): 1331. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05. S2CID   95703833.
8. Armbruster, P.; Munzenberg, G. (1989). "Creating superheavy elements". Scientific American . 34: 1331–1339. OSTI   6481060.
9. Fleischmann, M.; Pons, S. (1989). "Electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry . 261 (2): 301–308. doi:10.1016/0022-0728(89)80006-3.
10. S. Hofmann; et al. (1996). "The new element 112". Zeitschrift für Physik A . 354 (1): 229–230. Bibcode:1996ZPhyA.354..229H. doi:10.1007/BF02769517. S2CID   119975957.
11. Morita, K. (2004). "Decay of an Isotope ²⁷⁷112 produced by ²⁰⁸Pb + ⁷⁰Zn reaction". In Penionzhkevich, Yu. E.; Cherepanov, E. A. (eds.). Exotic Nuclei: Proceedings of the International Symposium. World Scientific. pp. 188–191. doi:10.1142/9789812701749_0027.
12. Popeko, Andrey G. (2016). "Synthesis of superheavy elements" (PDF). jinr.ru. Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 February 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
13. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (1999). "Search for new isotopes of element 112 by irradiation of ²³⁸U with ⁴⁸Ca". European Physical Journal A . 5 (1): 63–68. Bibcode:1999EPJA....5...63O. doi:10.1007/s100500050257. S2CID   59326674.
14. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (2004). "Second Experiment at VASSILISSA separator on the synthesis of the element 112". European Physical Journal A . 19 (1): 3–6. Bibcode:2004EPJA...19....3O. doi:10.1140/epja/i2003-10113-4. S2CID   122175380.
15. Loveland, W.; et al. (2002). "Search for the production of element 112 in the ⁴⁸Ca+²³⁸U reaction". Physical Review C . 66 (4): 044617. arXiv: nucl-ex/0206018 . Bibcode:2002PhRvC..66d4617L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.66.044617. S2CID   36216985.
16. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu.; Gulbekian, G.; Bogomolov, S.; Gikal, B. N.; et al. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions ^233,238U, ²⁴²Pu, and ²⁴⁸Cm+⁴⁸Ca" (PDF). Physical Review C. 70 (6): 064609. Bibcode:2004PhRvC..70f4609O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609.
17. Soverna, S. (2003). Indication for a gaseous element 112 (PDF) (Report). Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-03-29.
18. Hofmann, S.; et al. (2005). Search for Element 112 Using the Hot Fusion Reaction ⁴⁸Ca + ²³⁸U (PDF) (Report). Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung. p. 191. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-03.
19. Eichler, R; Aksenov, NV; Belozerov, AV; Bozhikov, GA; Chepigin, VI; Dmitriev, SN; Dressler, R; Gäggeler, HW; Gorshkov, VA (2007). "Chemical Characterization of Element 112". Nature . 447 (7140): 72–75. Bibcode:2007Natur.447...72E. doi:10.1038/nature05761. PMID   17476264. S2CID   4347419.
20. Hofmann, S.; et al. (2007). "The reaction ⁴⁸Ca + ²³⁸U -> ²⁸⁶112* studied at the GSI-SHIP". European Physical Journal A . 32 (3): 251–260. Bibcode:2007EPJA...32..251H. doi:10.1007/BF01415134. S2CID   100784990.
21. Hofmann, S.; Heinz, S.; Mann, R.; Maurer, J.; Münzenberg, G.; Antalic, S.; Barth, W.; Burkhard, H. G.; Dahl, L.; Eberhardt, K.; Grzywacz, R.; Hamilton, J. H.; Henderson, R. A.; Kenneally, J. M.; Kindler, B.; Kojouharov, I.; Lang, R.; Lommel, B.; Miernik, K.; Miller, D.; Moody, K. J.; Morita, K.; Nishio, K.; Popeko, A. G.; Roberto, J. B.; Runke, J.; Rykaczewski, K. P.; Saro, S.; Schneidenberger, C.; Schött, H. J.; Shaughnessy, D. A.; Stoyer, M. A.; Thörle-Pospiech, P.; Tinschert, K.; Trautmann, N.; Uusitalo, J.; Yeremin, A. V. (2016). "Remarks on the Fission Barriers of SHN and Search for Element 120". In Peninozhkevich, Yu. E.; Sobolev, Yu. G. (eds.). Exotic Nuclei: EXON-2016 Proceedings of the International Symposium on Exotic Nuclei. Exotic Nuclei. pp. 155–164. ISBN   9789813226555.
22. Public Affairs Department (26 October 2010). "Six New Isotopes of the Superheavy Elements Discovered: Moving Closer to Understanding the Island of Stability". Berkeley Lab . Retrieved 2011-04-25.
23. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Sagaidak, R. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; et al. (2006-10-09). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the ²⁴⁹Cf and ²⁴⁵Cm+⁴⁸Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C. 74 (4): 044602. Bibcode:2006PhRvC..74d4602O. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602 .
24. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Yeremin, A. V.; Popeko, A. G.; Bogomolov, S. L.; Buklanov, G. V.; Chelnokov, M. L.; Chepigin, V. I.; Gikal, B. N.; Gorshkov, V. A.; Gulbekian, G. G.; et al. (1999). "Synthesis of nuclei of the superheavy element 114 in reactions induced by ⁴⁸Ca". Nature. 400 (6741): 242–245. Bibcode:1999Natur.400..242O. doi:10.1038/22281. S2CID   4399615.
25. Oganessian, Y. T.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Y.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Y.; Gulbekian, G.; Bogomolov, S.; Gikal, B.; et al. (2000). "Synthesis of superheavy nuclei in the ⁴⁸Ca+²⁴⁴Pu reaction: ²⁸⁸Fl". Physical Review C. 62 (4): 041604. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..62d1604O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.62.041604.
26. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections for the fusion-evaporation reactions ²⁴⁴Pu(⁴⁸Ca,xn)^292−x114 and ²⁴⁵Cm(⁴⁸Ca,xn)^293−x116". Physical Review C . 69 (5): 054607. Bibcode:2004PhRvC..69e4607O. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.69.054607 .
27. Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-0485-9.
28. Ninov, V.; et al. (1999). "Observation of Superheavy Nuclei Produced in the Reaction of ⁸⁶
    Kr
    with ²⁰⁸
    Pb
    ". Physical Review Letters . 83 (6): 1104–1107. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..83.1104N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1104.
29. Patin, J. B.; et al. (2003). Confirmed results of the ²⁴⁸Cm(⁴⁸Ca,4n)²⁹²116 experiment (PDF) (Report). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-30. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
30. Hofmann, S.; Heinz, S.; Mann, R.; Maurer, J.; Münzenberg, G.; Antalic, S.; Barth, W.; Burkhard, H. G.; Dahl, L.; Eberhardt, K.; Grzywacz, R.; Hamilton, J. H.; Henderson, R. A.; Kenneally, J. M.; Kindler, B.; Kojouharov, I.; Lang, R.; Lommel, B.; Miernik, K.; Miller, D.; Moody, K. J.; Morita, K.; Nishio, K.; Popeko, A. G.; Roberto, J. B.; Runke, J.; Rykaczewski, K. P.; Saro, S.; Scheidenberger, C.; Schött, H. J.; Shaughnessy, D. A.; Stoyer, M. A.; Thörle-Popiesch, P.; Tinschert, K.; Trautmann, N.; Uusitalo, J.; Yeremin, A. V. (2016). "Review of even element super-heavy nuclei and search for element 120". The European Physical Journal A. 2016 (52): 180. Bibcode:2016EPJA...52..180H. doi:10.1140/epja/i2016-16180-4. S2CID   124362890.
31. Heßberger, F. P.; Ackermann, D. (2017). "Some critical remarks on a sequence of events interpreted to possibly originate from a decay chain of an element 120 isotope". The European Physical Journal A. 53 (123): 123. Bibcode:2017EPJA...53..123H. doi:10.1140/epja/i2017-12307-5. S2CID   125886824.
32. see Flerov lab annual reports 2001–2004
33. Feng, Zhao-Qing (2007). "Formation of superheavy nuclei in cold fusion reactions". Physical Review C. 76 (4): 044606. arXiv: 0707.2588 . Bibcode:2007PhRvC..76d4606F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.76.044606. S2CID   711489.
34. Feng, Zhao-Qing; Jin, Gen-Ming; Li, Jun-Qing; Peterson, D.; Rouki, C.; Zielinski, P. M.; Aleklett, K. (2010). "Influence of entrance channels on formation of superheavy nuclei in massive fusion reactions". Nuclear Physics A. 836 (1–2): 82–90. arXiv: 0904.2994 . Bibcode:2010NuPhA.836...82F. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2010.01.244. S2CID   10170328.
35. Zhu, L.; Su, J.; Zhang, F. (2016). "Influence of the neutron numbers of projectile and target on the evaporation residue cross sections in hot fusion reactions". Physical Review C . 93 (6): 064610. Bibcode:2016PhRvC..93f4610Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.93.064610.
36. Feng, Z.; Jin, G.; Li, J. (2009). "Production of new superheavy Z=108-114 nuclei with ²³⁸U, ²⁴⁴Pu and ^248,250Cm targets". Physical Review C . 80: 057601. arXiv: 0912.4069 . doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.80.057601. S2CID   118733755.

• Isotope masses from:
  • M. Wang; G. Audi; A. H. Wapstra; F. G. Kondev; M. MacCormick; X. Xu; et al. (2012). "The AME2012 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 36 (12): 1603–2014. Bibcode:2012ChPhC..36....3M. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/36/12/003. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-23E8-5. S2CID   250839471.
  • Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
• Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.
  • Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
  • National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.x database". Brookhaven National Laboratory.
  • Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-0485-9.
  • GSI (2011). "Superheavy Element Research at GSI" (PDF). GSI. Retrieved 13 July 2012.