Isotopes of rutherfordium

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Isotopes of rutherfordium  (104Rf)
Main isotopes [1] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
261Rf synth 2.1 s SF 82%–
α 18% 257No
263Rfsynth15 min [2] SF<100%?–
α~30%? 259No
265Rfsynth1.1 min [3] SF–
267Rfsynth48 min [4] SF–

Rutherfordium (104Rf) is a synthetic element and thus has no stable isotopes. A standard atomic weight cannot be given. The first isotope to be synthesized was either 259Rf in 1966 or 257Rf in 1969. There are 16 known radioisotopes from 253Rf to 270Rf (3 of which, 266Rf, 268Rf, and 270Rf, are unconfirmed) and several isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 267Rf with a half-life of 48 minutes, and the longest-lived isomer is 263mRf with a half-life of 8 seconds.

Contents

List of isotopes


Nuclide
[n 1] 		Z N Isotopic mass (Da)
[n 2] [n 3] 		Half-life
[n 4] 		Decay
mode
[n 5] 		Daughter
isotope
Spin and
parity
[n 6] [n 4]
Excitation energy [n 4]
253Rf [5] 104149253.10044(44)#9.9(12) ms SF (83%)(various)(1/2+)
α (17%)249No
253m1Rf200(150)# keV52.8(44) μsSF(various)(7/2+)
253m2Rf>1020 keV0.66+0.40
−0.18 ms		 IT 253m1Rf
254Rf [6] 104150254.10005(30)#23.2(11) μsSF (100%)(various)0+
α (<1.5%) [7] 250No
254m1Rf>1350 keV4.7(11) μsIT254Rf(8−)
254m2Rf247(73) μsIT254m1Rf(16+)
255Rf [8] 104151255.10127(12)#1.69(3) sSF (50.9%)(various)(9/2−)
α (49.1%)251No
β+ (<6%)255Lr
255m1Rf150 keV50(17) μsIT255Rf(5/2+)
255m2Rf1103 keV29+7
−5 μs		IT255Rf(19/2+)
255m3Rf1303 keV49+13
−10 μs		IT255Rf(25/2+)
256Rf [9] 104152256.101152(19)6.67(9) msSF (99.68%)(various)0+
α (0.32%) [10] 252No
256m1Rf~1120 keV25(2) μsIT256Rf
256m2Rf~1400 keV17(2) μsIT256m1Rf
256m3Rf>2200 keV27(5) μsIT256m2Rf
257Rf104153257.102917(12) [11] 6.2+1.2
−1.0 s [12] 		α (89.3%)253No(1/2+)
β+ (9.4%) [13] 257mLr
SF (1.3%) [14] (various)
257m1Rf [12] 74 keV4.37(5) sα (80.54%)253No(11/2−)
IT (14.2%)257Rf
β+ (4.86%)257Lr
SF (0.4%)(various)
257m2Rf [15] ~1125 keV134.9(77) μsIT257m1Rf(21/2, 23/2)
258Rf [1] 104154258.10343(3)12.5(5) msSF (95.1%)(various)0+
α (4.9%)254No
258m1Rf1200(300)# keV2.4+2.4
−0.8 ms [16] 		IT258Rf
258m2Rf1500(500)# keV15(10) μsIT258m1Rf
259Rf [1] 104155259.10560(8)#2.63(26) sα (85%)255No3/2+#
β+ (15%)259Lr
260Rf104156260.10644(22)#21(1) msSF(various)0+
α (<20%) [17] 256No
261Rf104157261.10877(5)75(7) s [18] α257No9/2+#
β+ (<14%) [19] 261Lr
SF (<11%) [20] (various)
261mRf70(100)# keV1.9(4) s [21] SF (73%)(various)3/2+#
α (27%)257No
262Rf104158262.10993(24)#210+128
−58 ms [22] 		SF(various)0+
262mRf600(400)# keV47(5) msSF(various)high
263Rf104159263.1125(2)#11(3) minSF (77%)(various)3/2+#
α (23%) [23] 259No
263mRf [n 7] 5.1+4.6
−1.7 s [24] 		SF(various)1/2#
265Rf [n 8] 104161265.11668(39)#1.1+0.8
−0.3 min [3] 		SF(various)
266Rf [n 9] [n 10] 104162266.11817(50)#23 s# [25] [26] SF(various)0+
267Rf [n 11] 104163267.12179(62)#48+23
−12 min [4] 		SF(various)13/2−#
268Rf [n 9] [n 12] 104164268.12397(77)#1.4 s# [26] [27] SF(various)0+
270Rf [28] [n 9] [n 13] 10416620 ms# [26] [29] SF(various)0+
This table header & footer:
  1. ↑ mRf – Excited nuclear isomer.
  2. ↑ ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
  3. ↑ # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
  4. 1 2 3 # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
  5. ↑ Modes of decay:
    SF: Spontaneous fission
  6. ↑ ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
  7. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 271Hs
  8. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 285Fl
  9. 1 2 3 Discovery of this isotope is unconfirmed
  10. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 282Nh
  11. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 287Fl
  12. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 288Mc
  13. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 294Ts

Nucleosynthesis

Super-heavy elements such as rutherfordium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induces fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of rutherfordium can be synthesized directly this way, some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic numbers. [30]

Depending on the energies involved, the former are separated into "hot" and "cold". In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets (actinides), giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50  MeV) that may either fission or evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons. [30] In cold fusion reactions, the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the ground state, they require emission of only one or two neutrons, and thus, allows for the generation of more neutron-rich products. [31] The latter is a distinct concept from that of where nuclear fusion claimed to be achieved at room temperature conditions (see cold fusion). [32]

Hot fusion studies

The synthesis of rutherfordium was first attempted in 1964 by the team at Dubna using the hot fusion reaction of neon-22 projectiles with plutonium-242 targets:

242
94Pu
 + 22
10Ne
 → 264−x
104Rf
 + 3 or 5
n
 .

The first study produced evidence for a spontaneous fission with a 0.3 second half-life and another one at 8 seconds. While the former observation was eventually retracted, the latter eventually became associated with the 259Rf isotope. [33] In 1966, the Soviet team repeated the experiment using a chemical study of volatile chloride products. They identified a volatile chloride with eka-hafnium properties that decayed fast through spontaneous fission. This gave strong evidence for the formation of RfCl4, and although a half-life was not accurately measured, later evidence suggested that the product was most likely 259Rf. The team repeated the experiment several times over the next few years, and in 1971, they revised the spontaneous fission half-life for the isotope at 4.5 seconds. [33]

In 1969, researchers at the University of California led by Albert Ghiorso, tried to confirm the original results reported at Dubna. In a reaction of curium-248 with oxygen-16, they were unable to confirm the result of the Soviet team, but managed to observe the spontaneous fission of 260Rf with a very short half-life of 10–30 ms:

248
96Cm
 + 16
8O
 → 260
104Rf
 + 4
n
 .

In 1970, the American team also studied the same reaction with oxygen-18 and identified 261Rf with a half-life of 65 seconds (later refined to 75 seconds). [34] [35] Later experiments at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California also revealed the formation of a short-lived isomer of 262Rf (which undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of 47 ms), [36] and spontaneous fission activities with long lifetimes tentatively assigned to 263Rf. [37]

Diagram of the experimental set-up used in the discovery of isotopes Rf and Rf Rutherfordium experimental setup.jpeg
Diagram of the experimental set-up used in the discovery of isotopes Rf and Rf

The reaction of californium-249 with carbon-13 was also investigated by the Ghiorso team, which indicated the formation of the short-lived 258Rf (which undergoes spontaneous fission in 11 ms): [38]

249
98Cf
 + 13
6C
 → 258
104Rf
 + 4
n
 .

In trying to confirm these results by using carbon-12 instead, they also observed the first alpha decays from 257Rf. [38]

The reaction of berkelium-249 with nitrogen-14 was first studied in Dubna in 1977, and in 1985, researchers there confirmed the formation of the 260Rf isotope which quickly undergoes spontaneous fission in 28 ms: [33]

249
97Bk
 + 14
7N
 → 260
104Rf
 + 3
n
 .

In 1996 the isotope 262Rf was observed in LBNL from the fusion of plutonium-244 with neon-22:

244
94Pu
 + 22
10Ne
 → 266−x
104Rf
 + 4 or 5
n
 .

The team determined a half-life of 2.1 seconds, in contrast to earlier reports of 47 ms and suggested that the two half-lives might be due to different isomeric states of 262Rf. [39] Studies on the same reaction by a team at Dubna, lead to the observation in 2000 of alpha decays from 261Rf and spontaneous fissions of 261mRf. [40]

The hot fusion reaction using a uranium target was first reported at Dubna in 2000:

238
92U
 + 26
12Mg
 → 264−x
104Rf
 + x
n
 (x = 3, 4, 5, 6).

They observed decays from 260Rf and 259Rf, and later for 259Rf. In 2006, as part of their program on the study of uranium targets in hot fusion reactions, the team at LBNL also observed 261Rf. [40] [41] [42]

Cold fusion studies

The first cold fusion experiments involving element 104 were done in 1974 at Dubna, by using light titanium-50 nuclei aimed at lead-208 isotope targets:

208
82Pb
 + 50
22Ti
 → 258−x
104Rf
 + x
n
 (x = 1, 2, or 3).

The measurement of a spontaneous fission activity was assigned to 256Rf, [43] while later studies done at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung Institute (GSI), also measured decay properties for the isotopes 257Rf, and 255Rf. [44] [45]

In 1974 researchers at Dubna investigated the reaction of lead-207 with titanium-50 to produce the isotope 255Rf. [46] In a 1994 study at GSI using the lead-206 isotope, 255Rf as well as 254Rf were detected. 253Rf was similarly detected that year when lead-204 was used instead. [45]

Decay studies

Most isotopes with an atomic mass below 262 have also observed as decay products of elements with a higher atomic number, allowing for refinement of their previously measured properties. Heavier isotopes of rutherfordium have only been observed as decay products. For example, a few alpha decay events terminating in 267Rf were observed in the decay chain of darmstadtium-279 since 2004:

279
110Ds
 → 275
108Hs
 +
α
 → 271
106Sg
 +
α
 → 267
104Rf
 +
α
 .

This further underwent spontaneous fission with a half-life of about 1.3 h. [47] [48] [49]

Investigations on the synthesis of the dubnium-263 isotope in 1999 at the University of Bern revealed events consistent with electron capture to form 263Rf. A rutherfordium fraction was separated, and several spontaneous fission events with long half-lives of about 15 minutes were observed, as well as alpha decays with half-lives of about 10 minutes. [37] Reports on the decay chain of flerovium-285 in 2010 showed five sequential alpha decays that terminate in 265Rf, which further undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of 152 seconds. [50]

Some experimental evidence was obtained in 2004 for a heavier isotope, 268Rf, in the decay chain of an isotope of moscovium:

288
115Mc
 → 284
113Nh
 +
α
 → 280
111Rg
 +
α
 → 276
109Mt
 +
α
 → 272
107Bh
 +
α
 → 268
105Db
 +
α
  ? → 268
104Rf
 +
ν
e .

However, the last step in this chain was uncertain. After observing the five alpha decay events that generate dubnium-268, spontaneous fission events were observed with a long half-life. It is unclear whether these events were due to direct spontaneous fission of 268Db, or 268Db produced electron capture events with long half-lives to generate 268Rf. If the latter is produced and decays with a short half-life, the two possibilities cannot be distinguished. [51] Given that the electron capture of 268Db cannot be detected, these spontaneous fission events may be due to 268Rf, in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted. [27] [52] A similar mechanism is proposed for the formation of the even heavier isotope 270Rf as a short-lived daughter of 270Db (in the decay chain of 294Ts, first synthesized in 2010) which then undergoes spontaneous fission: [28]

294
117Ts
 → 290
115Mc
 +
α
 → 286
113Nh
 +
α
 → 282
111Rg
 +
α
 → 278
109Mt
 +
α
 → 274
107Bh
 +
α
 → 270
105Db
 +
α
  ? → 270
104Rf
 +
ν
e .

According to a 2007 report on the synthesis of nihonium, the isotope 282Nh was twice observed to undergo a similar decay to form 266Db. In one case this underwent spontaneous fission with a half-life of 22 minutes. Given that the electron capture of 266Db cannot be detected, these spontaneous fission events may be due to 266Rf, in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted. In the other case, no spontaneous fission event was observed; it could have been missed, or 266Db might have undergone two more alpha decays to long-lived 258Md, with a half-life (51.5 d) longer than the total time of the experiment. [25] [53]

Nuclear isomerism

Currently suggested decay level scheme for Rf from the studies reported in 2007 by Hessberger et al. at GSI 257Rf decay scheme 2006.png
Currently suggested decay level scheme for Rf from the studies reported in 2007 by Hessberger et al. at GSI

Several early studies on the synthesis of 263Rf have indicated that this nuclide decays primarily by spontaneous fission with a half-life of 10–20 minutes. More recently, a study of hassium isotopes allowed the synthesis of atoms of 263Rf decaying with a shorter half-life of 8 seconds. These two different decay modes must be associated with two isomeric states, but specific assignments are difficult due to the low number of observed events. [37]

During research on the synthesis of rutherfordium isotopes utilizing the 244Pu(22Ne,5n)261Rf reaction, the product was found to undergo exclusive 8.28 MeV alpha decay with a half-life of 78 seconds. Later studies at GSI on the synthesis of copernicium and hassium isotopes produced conflicting data, as 261Rf produced in the decay chain was found to undergo 8.52 MeV alpha decay with a half-life of 4 seconds. Later results indicated a predominant fission branch. These contradictions led to some doubt on the discovery of copernicium. The first isomer is currently denoted 261aRf (or simply 261Rf) whilst the second is denoted 261bRf (or 261mRf). However, it is thought that the first nucleus belongs to a high-spin ground state and the latter to a low-spin metastable state. [55] The discovery and confirmation of 261bRf provided proof for the discovery of copernicium in 1996. [56]

A detailed spectroscopic study of the production of 257Rf nuclei using the reaction 208Pb(50Ti,n)257Rf allowed the identification of an isomeric level in 257Rf. The work confirmed that 257gRf has a complex spectrum with 15 alpha lines. A level structure diagram was calculated for both isomers. [57] Similar isomers were reported for 256Rf also. [58]

Chemical yields of isotopes

Cold fusion

The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.

ProjectileTargetCN1n2n3n
50Ti208Pb258Rf38.0 nb, 17.0 MeV12.3 nb, 21.5 MeV660 pb, 29.0 MeV
50Ti207Pb257Rf4.8 nb
50Ti206Pb256Rf800 pb, 21.5 MeV2.4 nb, 21.5 MeV
50Ti204Pb254Rf190 pb, 15.6 MeV
48Ti208Pb256Rf380 pb, 17.0 MeV

Hot fusion

The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for hot fusion reactions producing rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.

ProjectileTargetCN3n4n5n
26Mg238U264Rf240 pb1.1 nb
22Ne244Pu266Rf+4.0 nb
18O248Cm266Rf+13.0 nb

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Meitnerium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Mt and atomic number 109. It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element. The most stable known isotope, meitnerium-278, has a half-life of 4.5 seconds, although the unconfirmed meitnerium-282 may have a longer half-life of 67 seconds. The element was first synthesized in 1982 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany, and it was named after Lise Meitner in 1997.

Rutherfordium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Rf and atomic number 104. It is named after physicist Ernest Rutherford. As a synthetic element, it is not found in nature and can only be made in a particle accelerator. It is radioactive; the most stable known isotope, 267Rf, has a half-life of about 48 minutes.

Darmstadtium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Ds and atomic number 110. It is extremely radioactive: the most stable known isotope, darmstadtium-281, has a half-life of approximately 14 seconds. Darmstadtium was first created in 1994 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in the city of Darmstadt, Germany, after which it was named.

Livermorium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Lv and atomic number 116. It is an extremely radioactive element that has only been created in a laboratory setting and has not been observed in nature. The element is named after the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the United States, which collaborated with the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia, to discover livermorium during experiments conducted between 2000 and 2006. The name of the laboratory refers to the city of Livermore, California, where it is located, which in turn was named after the rancher and landowner Robert Livermore. The name was adopted by IUPAC on May 30, 2012. Six isotopes of livermorium are known, with mass numbers of 288–293 inclusive; the longest-lived among them is livermorium-293 with a half-life of about 80 milliseconds. A seventh possible isotope with mass number 294 has been reported but not yet confirmed.

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Nihonium is a synthetic chemical element; it has the symbol Nh and atomic number 113. It is extremely radioactive: its most stable known isotope, nihonium-286, has a half-life of about 10 seconds. In the periodic table, nihonium is a transactinide element in the p-block. It is a member of period 7 and group 13.

Nobelium (102No) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 254No in 1966. There are fourteen known radioisotopes, which are 248No to 260No and 262No, and many isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 259No with a half-life of 58 minutes. The longest-lived isomer is 251m1No with a half-life of 1.02 seconds.

Lawrencium (103Lr) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 258Lr in 1961. There are fourteen known isotopes from 251Lr to 266Lr, except 263Lr and 265Lr, and seven isomers. The longest-lived known isotope is 266Lr with a half-life of 11 hours.

Dubnium (105Db) is a synthetic element, thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 261Db in 1968. Thirteen radioisotopes are known, ranging from 255Db to 270Db, along with one isomer (257mDb); two more isomers have been reported but are unconfirmed. The longest-lived known isotope is 268Db with a half-life of 16 hours.

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Bohrium (107Bh) is an artificial element. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes, and a standard atomic weight cannot be given. The first isotope to be synthesized was 262Bh in 1981. There are 11 known isotopes ranging from 260Bh to 274Bh, and 1 isomer, 262mBh. The longest-lived isotope is 270Bh with a half-life of 2.4 minutes, although the unconfirmed 278Bh may have an even longer half-life of about 690 seconds.

Hassium (108Hs) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 265Hs in 1984. There are 13 known isotopes from 263Hs to 277Hs and up to six isomers. The most stable known isotope is 271Hs, with a half-life of about 46 seconds, though this assignment is not definite due to uncertainty arising from a low number of measurements. The isotopes 269Hs and 270Hs respectively have half-lives of about 12 seconds and 7.6 seconds. It is also possible that the isomer 277mHs is more stable than these, with a reported half-life 130±100 seconds, but only one event of decay of this isotope has been registered as of 2016.

Meitnerium (109Mt) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 266Mt in 1982, and this is also the only isotope directly synthesized; all other isotopes are only known as decay products of heavier elements. There are eight known isotopes, from 266Mt to 278Mt. There may also be two isomers. The longest-lived of the known isotopes is 278Mt with a half-life of 8 seconds. The unconfirmed heavier 282Mt appears to have an even longer half-life of 67 seconds.

Darmstadtium (110Ds) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 269Ds in 1994. There are 11 known radioisotopes from 267Ds to 281Ds and 2 or 3 known isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 281Ds with a half-life of 14 seconds. However, the unconfirmed 282Ds might have an even longer half-life of 67 seconds.

Roentgenium (111Rg) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 272Rg in 1994, which is also the only directly synthesized isotope; all others are decay products of heavier elements. There are seven known radioisotopes, having mass numbers of 272, 274, and 278–282. The longest-lived isotope is 282Rg with a half-life of about 2 minutes, although the unconfirmed 283Rg and 286Rg may have longer half-lives of about 5.1 minutes and 10.7 minutes respectively.

Copernicium (112Cn) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 277Cn in 1996. There are seven known radioisotopes ; the longest-lived isotope is 285Cn with a half-life of 30 seconds.

Flerovium (114Fl) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 289Fl in 1999. Flerovium has six known isotopes, along with the unconfirmed 290Fl, and possibly two nuclear isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 289Fl with a half-life of 1.9 seconds, but 290Fl may have a longer half-life of 19 seconds.

Livermorium (116Lv) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 293Lv in 2000. There are six known radioisotopes, with mass numbers 288–293, as well as a few suggestive indications of a possible heavier isotope 294Lv. The longest-lived known isotope is 293Lv with a half-life of 53 ms.

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  11. ↑ AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation
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