Ozone depletion and climate change

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Ozone depletion and climate change, or Ozone hole global warming in more popular terms, are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted, for example in terms of global regulation, in various studies and books.

Contents

There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change, ozone depletion and air pollution, as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance. [1] Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change, ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed "monumental" and a combined synopsis provided. [2]

There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made. Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere, thus causing problems that are difficult to reverse. However, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories, while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed. Currently, efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies, for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information. [3] While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion, in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halocarbons, which are held responsible for ozone depletion, are important greenhouse gases. Furthermore, natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect.[ citation needed ]

There are various ways in which ozone depletion and climate change are interconnected, but ozone depletion is not a primary cause of climate change.

The Earth's atmospheric ozone has two effects on the Earth's temperature balance. Firstly, it absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation, leading to the heating of the stratosphere. Secondly, it also traps heat in the troposphere by absorbing infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface. Consequently, the impact of changes in ozone concentrations on climate depends on the altitude at which these changes occur. Human-produced chlorine- and bromine-containing gases, which cause major ozone losses in the lower stratosphere, have a cooling effect on the Earth's surface. In contrast, ozone increases in the troposphere caused by surface-pollution gases, contribute to the "greenhouse" effect and have a warming effect on the Earth's surface.

Policy approach

Sir Robert (Bob) Watson played an important role in both cases Bob Watson.jpg
Sir Robert (Bob) Watson played an important role in both cases

There are both links and major differences between ozone depletion and global warming and the way the two challenges have been handled. While in the case of atmospheric ozone depletion, in a situation of high uncertainty and against strong resistance, climate change regulation attempts at the international level such as the Kyoto Protocol have failed to reduce global emissions. [4] [5] The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol were both originally signed by only some member states of the United Nations (43 nations in the case of the Montreal Protocol in 1986) while Kyoto attempted to create a worldwide agreement from scratch. Expert consensus concerning CFCs in the form of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion was reached long after the first regulatory steps were taken, and as of 29 December 2012, all countries in the United Nations plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue and the supranational European Union had ratified the original Montreal Protocol. [6] These countries have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, and Montreal amendments to the Protocol. As of 15 April 2014, the Beijing amendments had not been ratified by two state parties. [7]

After the Vienna Convention, the halocarbon industry shifted its position and started supporting a protocol to limit CFC production. US manufacturer DuPont acted more quickly than their European counterparts. [8] The EU shifted its position as well after Germany, which has a substantial chemical industry, gave up its defence of the CFC industry [4] and started supporting more regulation. Government and industry in France and the UK had tried to defend their CFC-producing industries even after the Montreal Protocol had been signed. [9]

The Vienna Convention was installed before a scientific consensus on the ozone hole was established. [4] On the contrary, until the 1980s the EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO and the British government had issued scientific reports with divergent conclusions. [4] Sir Robert (Bob) Watson, Director of the Science Division at NASA, played a crucial role in the process of reaching a unified assessment. [4]

Policy and consensus

Layers of the atmosphere (not to scale). The Earth's ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi) above Earth. Atmosphere layers-en.svg
Layers of the atmosphere (not to scale). The Earth's ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi) above Earth.

Aant Elzinga wrote in 1996 about the consensus, that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has tried in the prior two reports a global consensus approach to climate action. [10] Stephen Schneider and Paul N. Edwards, noted in 1997, that after the IPCC Second Assessment Report, the lobby group Global Climate Coalition and a few self-proclaimed “contrarian” scientists tried to discredit the conclusions of the report. They pointed out that the goal of the IPCC is to fairly represent the complete range of credible scientific opinion and if possible a consensus view. [11]

In 2007, Reiner Grundmann compared climate actions in Europe and the United States, he interpreted the inaction besides existing consensus, and noted, Political agenda that drove US climate change policy. The high visibility of skeptical scientists in the media resonates with this, and wrote that Germany started ambitious goals, reduced emissions, because ‘balanced reporting’ led to a bias in climate change coverage in advantage of skeptical arguments in the U.S., but not so much in Germany. Additionally, Grundmann pointed out that after warnings from scientists in 1986 the German Parliament commissioned the Enquetekommission ‘Vorsorge zum Schutz der Erdatmosphäre’ (Precaution for the Protection of the Earth's Atmosphere), to assess the situation, consisting of scientists, politicians and representatives of interest groups. Three years later the report made an impact with the assessment of the state of the art in climate research, an assessment of the threat of climate change itself as well as suggestions for clear emissions reduction targets, even though he argues there was no consensus, and attributed the success of the report to strong precautionary action, and that no scientific outsiders or climate change deniers were involved. [12] [13]

A linear model of policy-making, based on a position that "the more knowledge we have, the better the political response will be", was not applied in the ozone case. [14] On the contrary, the CFC regulation process focused more on managing ignorance and uncertainties as a basis of political decision making, as the relationships between science, public (lack of) understanding and policy were better taken into account. [5] [12] [15] In the meantime, such a player in the IPCC process as Michael Oppenheimer conceded some limitations of the IPCC consensus approach and asked for concurring, smaller assessments of special problems instead of repetitions of the large-scale approach every six years. [16] It has become more important to provide a broader exploration of uncertainties. [16] Others also see mixed blessings in the drive for consensus within the IPCC process and have asked for dissenting or minority positions to be included [17] or for statements about uncertainties to be improved. [18] [19]

Public opinion

The two atmospheric problems have achieved significantly different levels of understanding by the public, including both the basic science and policy issues. [15] People have limited scientific knowledge about global warming and tend to confuse it with [20] or see it as a subset of the ozone hole. [21] Not only on the policy level, ozone regulation fared much better than climate change in public opinion. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays before the legislation was enforced, while climate change has failed in achieving a broader scientific comprehension and in raising comparable concern. [15]

The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns. [15] The ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture" and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance", while the public opinion on climate change sees no imminent danger. [15] The ozone hole was much more seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk compared to global climate change, [12] as lay people feared a depletion of the ozone layer (ozone shield) risked increasing severe consequences such as skin cancer, cataracts, [22] damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone. This was not the case with global warming. [4]

Personal risk assessment and knowledge

Sheldon Ungar Archived 2021-05-06 at the Wayback Machine , a Canadian sociologist, assumes that while the quantity of specialized knowledge is exploding, in contrast scientific ignorance among lay people is the norm and even increasing. Public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threshold or beacon to signify immediate danger. [15] Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of 2 °C (4 °F) to 3 °C (5 °F) over several decades do not resonate with people, for example in North America, who experience similar swings during a single day. [15] As scientists define global warming as a problem of the future, a liability in the "attention economy", pessimistic outlooks in general and the attribution of extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed in the public arena (compare the Gore effect). [23] Even when James Hansen tried to use the 1988–89 North American drought as a call to action, scientists kept stating, in line with the IPCC findings, that even extreme weather is not climate. [15] While the greenhouse effect, per se, is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the ozone hole and other metaphors about ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties; both the ozone content of the upper atmosphere and its depletion are complicated to measure and the link between ozone depletion and rates of enhanced skin cancer is rather weak. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) resonated better with lay people and their concerns.

The idea of rays penetrating a damaged “shield” meshes nicely with abiding and resonant cultural motifs, including “Hollywood affinities.” These range from the shields on the Starship Enterprise to Star Wars ... It is these pre-scientific bridging metaphors built around the penetration of a deteriorating shield that render the ozone problem relatively simple. That the ozone threat can be linked with Darth Vader means that it is encompassed in common sense understandings that are deeply ingrained and widely shared. [15]

— Sheldon Ungar

The CFC regulation attempts at the end of the 1980s profited from those easy to grasp metaphors and the personal risk assumptions taken from them. The fate of celebrities like President Ronald Reagan, who had skin cancer removal from his nose in 1985 and 1987, was also of high importance. [24] In case of the public opinion on climate change, no imminent danger is perceived. [15]

Cost-benefit assessments and industry policy

Cass Sunstein and others have compared the differing approach of the United States to the Montreal Protocol, which it accepted, and the Kyoto Protocol, which it rejected. Sunstein assumes that the cost-benefit assessments of climate change action for the US were instrumental in the US' withdrawal from participation in Kyoto. [5] Daniel Magraw, also a lawyer, considers governmental motivations besides relative costs and benefits as being of higher importance. [5] Peter Orszag and Terry Dinan took an insurance perspective and assume that an assessment which predicted dire consequences of climate change would be more of a motivation for the US to change its stance on global warming and adopting regulation measurements. [5]

The US chemical company DuPont had already lost some of their zeal in defending their products after a strategic manufacturing patent for Freon was set to expire in 1979. A citizen boycott of spray cans gained importance in parallel. Not by chance, the United States banned the use of CFCs in aerosol cans in 1978. [25]

Government and industry in France and the UK tried to defend their CFC-producing industries even after the Montreal Protocol had been signed. [9] The European Community rejected proposals to ban CFCs in aerosol sprays for a long time. The EU shifted its position after Germany, which also has a large chemical industry, gave up its defence of the CFC industry [4] and started supporting moves towards regulation. After regulation was more and more enforced, DuPont acted faster than their European counterparts as they may have feared court action related to increased skin cancer, especially as the EPA had published a study in 1986 claiming that an additional 40 million cases and 800,000 cancer deaths were to be expected in the US in the next 88 years. [8] The identification and marketing of a 100% ozone-safe hydrocarbon refrigerant called "Greenfreeze" by the NGO Greenpeace in the early 1990s had a rapid significant impact in major markets of Europe and Asia. [26] [27] The climate change protocols were less successful. In the case of Kyoto, then secretary of the environment Angela Merkel, prevented a possible failure by suggesting to use 1990 as starting date for emission reduction. In so far the demise of the Eastern European heavy industry allowed for a high commitment, but actual emissions kept on growing on a global scale. [28]

Science background

Radiative forcing from various greenhouse gases and other sources. Radiative-forcings.svg
Radiative forcing from various greenhouse gases and other sources.

There are various links between the two fields of human-atmospheric interaction. Policy experts have advocated for a closer linking of ozone protection and climate protection efforts. [29] [30]

Drew Shindell has used climate models to assess both climate change and ozone depletion. In his view, while research up to now has been more about the impact of CFC emissions on stratospheric ozone, the future will be more about the interaction between climate change and ozone feedback. [31] Ozone is a greenhouse gas itself. [32] Many ozone-depleting substances are also greenhouse gases, some agents of radiative forcing are thousands of times more powerful than carbon dioxide over the short and medium term. [33] The increases in concentrations of these chemicals have produced 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m2 of radiative forcing, corresponding to about 14% of the total radiative forcing from increases in the concentrations of well-mixed greenhouse gases. [34] Already the natural ozone variability in the stratosphere seems to be closely correlated with the 11-year solar cycle of irradiance changes and has, via a dynamic coupling between the stratosphere and troposphere, a significant impact on climate. [31] Ozone acts like a shield in the stratosphere, and protects life from extremely harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun. In the absence of stratospheric ozone, life forms would simply not exist. [35]

Sources of Stratospheric Chlorine Sources stratospheric chlorine.png
Sources of Stratospheric Chlorine

As with carbon dioxide and methane, there are some natural sources of tropospheric chlorine, such as sea spray. Chlorine from ocean spray is soluble and thus is washed by rainfall before it reaches the stratosphere. It is stratospheric chlorine that affects ozone depletion. Only methyl chloride, which is one of the halocarbons, has a mainly natural source, [36] and it is responsible for about 20% of the chlorine in the stratosphere; the remaining 80% comes from man-made sources. [37] Chlorofluorocarbons, in contrast, are insoluble and long-lived, allowing them to reach the stratosphere. In the lower atmosphere, there is much more chlorine from CFCs and related haloalkanes than there is in hydrogen chloride from salt spray, and in the stratosphere halocarbons are dominant. [38]

The same CO
2 radiative forcing that produces global warming is expected to cool the stratosphere. [39] This cooling, in turn, is expected to produce a relative increase in ozone (O
3) depletion in the polar area and in the frequency of ozone holes. [40] Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the climate system [41] of about −0.15 ± 0.10 watts per square metre (W/m2). [34]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global Climate Coalition</span> Lobbyist group against reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

The Global Climate Coalition (GCC) (1989–2001) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and engaged in climate change denial, publicly challenging the science behind global warming. The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations. The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol, and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States. The coalition knew it could not deny the scientific consensus, but sought to sow doubt over the scientific consensus on climate change and create manufactured controversy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Montreal Protocol</span> 1987 treaty to protect the ozone layer

The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989. Since then, it has undergone nine revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali) As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2040 and 2066. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation, it has been hailed as an example of successful international co-operation. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol". In comparison, effective burden-sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so. In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ozone layer</span> Region of the stratosphere

The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 15 to 35 kilometers (9 to 22 mi) above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the UN process for negotiating an agreement to limit dangerous climate change. Formally it is an international treaty among countries to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system", in part by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. It was signed in 1992 by 154 states at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro. The treaty entered into force on 21 March 1994. "UNFCCC" is also the name of the Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the convention, with offices on the UN Campus in Bonn, Germany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ozone depletion</span> Atmospheric phenomenon

Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere, and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorofluorocarbon</span> Class of organic compounds

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are fully or partly halogenated hydrocarbons that contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), chlorine (Cl), and fluorine (F), produced as volatile derivatives of methane, ethane, and propane.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Watson (chemist)</span> British chemist and atmospheric scientist (born 1948)

Sir Robert Tony Watson CMG FRS is a British chemist who has worked on atmospheric science issues including ozone depletion, global warming and paleoclimatology since the 1980s. Most recently, he is lead author of the February 2021 U.N. report Making Peace with Nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Refrigerant</span> Substance in a refrigeration cycle

A refrigerant is a working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle of air conditioning systems and heat pumps where in most cases they undergo a repeated phase transition from a liquid to a gas and back again. Refrigerants are heavily regulated due to their toxicity, flammability and the contribution of CFC and HCFC refrigerants to ozone depletion and that of HFC refrigerants to climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion</span>

The Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion is a sequence of reports sponsored by WMO/UNEP. The most recent report is from 2018. The reports were set up to inform the Montreal Protocol and amendments about ozone depletion.

Trichlorofluoromethane, also called freon-11, CFC-11, or R-11, is a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC). It is a colorless, faintly ethereal, and sweetish-smelling liquid that boils around room temperature. CFC-11 is a Class 1 ozone-depleting substance which allegedly damages Earth's protective stratospheric ozone layer.

Chlorotrifluoromethane, R-13, CFC-13, or Freon 13, is a non-flammable, non-corrosive, nontoxic chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and also a mixed halomethane. It is a man-made substance used primarily as a refrigerant. When released into the environment, CFC-13 has a high ozone depletion potential, and long atmospheric lifetime. Only a few other greenhouse gases surpass CFC-13 in global warming potential (GWP). The IPCC AR5 reported that CFC-13's atmospheric lifetime was 640 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chloropentafluoroethane</span> Chemical compound

Chloropentafluoroethane is a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) once used as a refrigerant and also known as R-115 and CFC-115. Its production and consumption has been banned since 1 January 1996 under the Montreal Protocol because of its high ozone depletion potential and very long lifetime when released into the environment. CFC-115 is also a potent greenhouse gas.

This is a list of climate change topics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas</span> Gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation at thermal infrared wavelengths

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. What distinguishes them from other gases is that they absorb the wavelengths of radiation that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. The Earth is warmed by sunlight, causing its surface to radiate heat, which is then mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. Without greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F), rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1-Chloro-1,1-difluoroethane</span> Chemical compound

1-Chloro-1,1-difluoroethane (HCFC-142b) is a haloalkane with the chemical formula CH3CClF2. It belongs to the hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) family of man-made compounds that contribute significantly to both ozone depletion and global warming when released into the environment. It is primarily used as a refrigerant where it is also known as R-142b and by trade names including Freon-142b.

Stephen Oliver Andersen is the Director of Research at the Institute for Governance & Sustainable Development (IGSD) and former co-chair (1989–2012) of the Montreal Protocol Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) where he also chaired and co-chaired Technical Options Committees, Task Forces and Special Reports. He is one of the founders and leading figures in the success of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer that has phased out the chemicals that deplete the stratospheric ozone that protects the Earth against the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation that causes skin cancer, cataracts, and suppression of the human immune system, destroys agricultural crops and natural ecosystems and deteriorates the built environment. Because ozone-depleting chemicals are also powerful greenhouse gases the Montreal Protocol also protected climate. Dr. Andersen was instrumental in the 2016 Kigali Amendment that will phase down hydrofluorocarbons once necessary to phase out chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) fast enough to avoid ozone tipping points, but no longer necessary now that environmentally superior replacements are available or soon to be available. For his ambitious campaign saving the ozone layer, Dr. Andersen earned the 2021 Future of Life Award along with Joe Farman and Susan Solomon.

Reiner Grundmann, is Professor of Science and Technology Studies (STS) at the University of Nottingham and Director of its interdisciplinary STS Research Priority Group. He is a German sociologist and political scientist who has resided in the UK since 1997. Previous appointments include Aston University and the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies.

Akkihebbal Ramaiah (Ravi) Ravishankara ForMemRS FAAAS FRSC is a scientist specializing in Chemistry and Atmospheric Sciences, and University Distinguished Professor in the Departments of Chemistry and Atmospheric Sciences at Colorado State University, Fort Collins.

Life Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP) is an evolving method to evaluate the carbon footprint and global warming impact of heating, ventilation, air conditioning (AC), refrigeration systems, and potentially other applications such as thermal insulating foam. It is calculated as the sum of direct, indirect, and embodied greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions generated over the lifetime of the system “from cradle to grave,” i.e. from manufacture to disposal. Direct emissions include all climate forcing effects from the release of refrigerants into the atmosphere, including annual leakage and losses during service and disposal of the unit. Indirect emissions include the climate forcing effects of GHG emissions from the electricity powering the equipment. The embodied emissions include the climate forcing effects of the manufacturing processes, transport, and installation for the refrigerant, materials, and equipment, and for recycle or other disposal of the product at end of its useful life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kigali Amendment</span> International agreement to reduce the use of hydrofluorocarbons

The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol is an international agreement to gradually reduce the consumption and production of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). It is a legally binding agreement designed to create rights and obligations in international law.

References

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  31. 1 2 Solar Cycle Variability, Ozone, and Climate, Drew Shindell et al., Solar Cycle Variability, Ozone, and Climate (Science, vol. 284. no. 5412, pp. 305 - 308, 9 April 1999)
  32. ↑ "Is ozone a greenhouse gas?". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
  33. ↑ Estrada, Francisco; et al. (2013). "Statistically derived contributions of diverse human influences to twentieth-century temperature changes". Nature Geoscience. 6 (12): 1050–55. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6.1050E. doi:10.1038/ngeo1999. hdl: 2144/27169 . S2CID   130224979.
  34. 1 2 "IPCC/TEAP Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and Technology and Economic Assessment Panel. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 21, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-04.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  35. ↑ Singh, Jaswant; Dubey, Anand K.; Singh, Rudra P. (2011). "Antarctic terrestrial ecosystem and role of pigments in enhanced UV-B radiations". Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology. 10 (1): 63–77. Bibcode:2011RESBT..10...63S. doi:10.1007/s11157-010-9226-3. S2CID   85222110.
  36. ↑ Yokouchi, Y.; Noijiri, Y.; Barrie, L. A.; Toom-Sauntry, D.; Machida, T.; Inuzuka, Y.; Akimoto, H.; Li, H. -J.; Fujinuma, Y.; Aoki, S. (2000). "A strong source of methyl chloride to the atmosphere from tropical coastal land". Nature. 403 (6767): 295–298. Bibcode:2000Natur.403..295Y. doi:10.1038/35002049. PMID   10659845. S2CID   4318352.
  37. ↑ "The Ozone Hole and Global Warming | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 2020-06-19.
  38. ↑ ozone-depletion FAQ, Part II, section 4.3
  39. ↑ Hegerl, Gabriele C.; et al. "Understanding and Attributing Climate Change" (PDF). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 675. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-05-08. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
  40. ↑ Ozone depletion. UNEP/DEWA/Earthwatch
  41. ↑ "6.4 Stratospheric Ozone". Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis. 2001. Archived from the original on 2016-06-03.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)

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