Mode of underwater diving

Last updated

A mode of (underwater) diving or (underwater) diving mode is a type or way of underwater diving requiring specific equipment, procedures and techniques. [1] Dive mode or diving mode may also refer to a user selected setting on a dive computer, indicating specific parameters for the dive which the computer cannot identify independently. [2]

Contents

There are several modes of diving distinguished largely by the breathing gas supply system used, diving equipment, procedures and techniques used, and whether the diver is exposed to the ambient pressure. [1] Ambient pressure diving, also known as compressed-gas diving, [3] may also be classed as air diving, oxygen diving, and mixed gas diving by the breathing gas used, and as open circuit, semi-closed, or closed circuit depending on whether the breathing gas is recirculated to any extent. The alternative to ambient pressure exposure is encapsulation in an atmospheric pressure diving suit or submersible. [4] The diving equipment, support equipment and procedures are largely determined by the mode. [1]

There are some applications where scuba diving is appropriate and surface-supplied diving is not, and others where the converse is true. There are also applications where either may be appropriate, and the mode is chosen to suit the specific circumstances. In all cases risk is managed by appropriate planning, skills, training and choice of equipment. [1]

Ambient pressure diving

Ambient pressure diving modes are those in which the diver is exposed to the ambient pressure in the water due to combined hydrostatic and local atmospheric pressure. [1]

Ambient pressure diving can also be classified as surface oriented diving, where the diver is decompressed to surface ambient pressure at the end of each dive, and saturation diving, where the diver remains under pressure between in-water exposures. [5]

They may be further classified by the type of breathing apparatus used, and by the confinement of the diving environment.

Freediving

Recreational breath-hold divers in basic equipment with floats and catch bags suitable for collecting lobster or shellfish Divers (2901939922).jpg
Recreational breath-hold divers in basic equipment with floats and catch bags suitable for collecting lobster or shellfish

The ability to dive and swim underwater while holding one's breath is considered a useful emergency skill, an important part of water sport and navy safety training, and an enjoyable leisure activity. [6] Underwater diving without breathing apparatus can be categorised as underwater swimming, snorkelling and freediving. These categories overlap considerably. Several competitive underwater sports are practised without breathing apparatus. [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

Freediving excludes the use of underwater breathing devices, and relies on the ability of divers to hold their breath until resurfacing. The technique ranges from simple breath-hold diving to competitive apnea dives. Fins and a diving mask are often used in free diving to improve vision and provide more efficient propulsion. A short breathing tube called a snorkel allows the diver to breathe at the surface while the face is immersed. Snorkelling on the surface with no intention of diving is a popular water sport and recreational activity. [6] [12]

Scuba diving

Scuba diving in open circuit and rebreather modes
DIR Divers Sandra edwards 2010.JPG
Recreational scuba divers on open circuit
US Navy explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) divers.jpg
Explosive ordnance disposal divers using rebreathers

Scuba diving is diving with a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, which is completely independent of surface supply. Scuba gives the diver mobility and horizontal range far beyond the reach of an umbilical hose attached to surface-supplied diving equipment (SSDE). [13] Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers. [14]

A scuba diver moves underwater primarily by using fins attached to the feet; [15] external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a towboard pulled from the surface. Other equipment includes a diving mask to improve underwater vision, a protective diving suit, equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive. [16] Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these diver certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, and a higher level of fitness may be needed for some applications. [17]

Open circuit scuba

Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. [18]

Scuba rebreather

Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. They greatly extend the time spent underwater as compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption. Rebreathers produce fewer bubbles and less noise than scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference. [19]

Surface-supplied diving

Surface-supplied diving in surface-oriented and saturation modes
U.S. Navy Diver enters the water during a training evolution at the Naval Diving and Salvage Training Center 140218-N-IC111-156.jpg
Surface-oriented diver entering the water
US Navy 010707-N-3093M-003 Diver Transfer Capsule.jpg
Closed diving bell, also known as a diver transfer capsule

An alternative to self-contained breathing systems is to supply breathing gases from the surface through a hose. When combined with a communication cable, a pneumofathometer hose and a safety line it is called the diver's umbilical, which may include a hot water hose for heating, video cable and breathing gas reclaim line. The diver generally wears a full-face mask or helmet, and gas may be supplied on demand or as a continuous free flow. More basic equipment that uses only an air hose is called an airline or hookah system. [20] [16] [21] This allows the diver to breathe using an air supply hose from high pressure cylinders or a diving air compressor at the surface. Breathing gas is supplied through a mouth-held demand valve or light full-face mask. Airline diving is used for work such as hull cleaning and archaeological surveys, for shellfish harvesting, and as snuba, a shallow water activity typically practised by tourists and those who are not scuba-certified. [21] [22] [23]

Stage diving

Diving stage US Navy 060508-F-6344A-002 Senior Chief Navy Diver Clifford Morin aboard rescue and salvage ship USS Safeguard (ARS 50) tends the dive stage as fellow divers are lowered into the Yellow Sea during a major recovery effort.jpg
Diving stage

Stage diving may refer to surface-supplied diving from a diving stage, or technical scuba diving where stage cylinders are used for different stages of a long dive, and may contain different gases. [24] A diving stage or diving basket is a simple platform lowered and lifted from the surface by a winch under the control of the diving team. The diver's umbilical leads directly to the diver and is managed at the surface by the diver's attendant. [1] In-water decompression is facilitated as the stage can be held at a reasonably constant depth. [25]

Open bell diving

A wet bell with a gas filled dome provides more comfort and control than a stage and allows for longer time in water. Wet bells are used for air and mixed gas, and divers can decompress on oxygen at 12 metres (40 ft). [26]

Closed bell bounce diving

Small closed bell systems have been designed that can be easily mobilised, and include a two-man bell, a launch and recovery system and a chamber for decompression after transfer under pressure (TUP). Divers can breathe air or mixed gas at the bottom and are usually recovered with the chamber filled with air. They decompress on oxygen supplied through built in breathing systems (BIBS) towards the end of the decompression. Small bell systems support bounce diving down to 120 metres (390 ft) and for bottom times up to 2 hours. [26]

Scuba replacement

A relatively portable surface gas supply system using high pressure gas cylinders for both primary and reserve gas, but using the full diver's umbilical system with pneumofathometer and voice communication, is known in the industry as "scuba replacement". It is generally used where scuba equipment cannot be used for reasons of safety or when it is not allowed by regulations or code of practice. [27]

Air-line diving

Low pressure breathing air compressor intended for air-line diving Low pressure breathing air compressor P8160075.jpg
Low pressure breathing air compressor intended for air-line diving

Hookah, Sasuba and Snuba systems are categorised as "air-line" equipment, as they are supplied through a basic air line, and do not include the communication, lifeline and pneumofathometer hose characteristic of a full diver's umbilical. A bailout system is not an inherent part of an air-line diving system, though it may be required in some applications. [28] [29]

Their field of application is very different from full surface-supplied diving. Hookah is generally used for shallow water work in low-hazard applications, and sometimes for open water hunting and gathering of seafood, [28] shallow water mining of gold and diamonds in rivers and streams, and bottom cleaning and other underwater maintenance of boats, hull cleaning, swimming pool maintenance, and shallow underwater inspections. [30] : 29 

Sasuba and Snuba are a shallow water recreational application for low-hazard sites, using air supplied through a short hose of about 7 m to a demand valve mouthpiece, [31]

Compressor diving

Compressor diving is a rudimentary method of surface-supplied diving used in some tropical regions such as the Philippines and the Caribbean. The divers swim with a half mask and fins and are supplied with air from an industrial low-pressure air compressor on the boat through plastic tubes. There is no reduction valve; the diver holds the hose end in his mouth with no demand valve or mouthpiece and allows excess air to spill out between the lips. [32]

Air and gas diving

The original breathing gas for diving was atmospheric air, and compressed air remains an important breathing gas for ambient pressure diving. Oxygen is limited to shallow water to avoid toxicity problems, and is usually used to accelerate decompression, or by tactical divers to provide a long endurance with a small amount of gas, and to minimise bubbles where detection would be a tactical problem. Some physiological problems of deeper diving, such as inert gas narcosis and high work of breathing, can be mitigated by the use of breathing gases based on helium, and experimental work which includes hydrogen in the mixture for extreme depths, continues. The common terminology refers to air diving and gas diving, [33] [34] which includes oxygen diving, [35] and mixed gas diving, which includes nitrox diving, trimix diving, and heliox diving. [36] [35]

Air is available for the cost of operating the compressor, so it is supplied on open circuit, and discharged into the surroundings on exhalation, and may be supplied through a free-flow system where this has advantages. Oxygen and nitrox are also cheap enough that it is usually economical to supply by demand open circuit except for long duration scuba operations, but helium is expensive and sometimes in short supply, so recycling can be viable for moderate usage, and essential for high volume usage. The costs of recycling by rebreathing or reclaiming helium based gases include high capital investment in the equipment, and additional running costs compared to open circuit. [37] The use of hydrogen as a breathing gas component is still experimental. [38]

Open and closed circuit diving

Diving with a recreational open-circuit scuba set Diver on the wreck of the Aster PB182648.JPG
Diving with a recreational open-circuit scuba set
Diver using Inspiration rebreather Diver using Inspiration rebreather at the wreck of the MV Orotava P6308040.JPG
Diver using Inspiration rebreather

Ambient pressure diving can also be classified as open circuit, closed circuit or semi-closed circuit diving. Each of these modes may be combined with scuba or surface supplied ambient pressure diving. [1] [39]

Open circuit diving implies that the exhaled breathing gas is discharged directly into the environment. The simplest case of this situation is constant oxygen fraction or constant gas fraction diving, when the same breathing gas mixture is used throughout the dive. However, open circuit can also be used with gas switching, where the breathing gases used on different stages of the dive are changed to better suit the depth and decompression requirements. Air diving is the classic example of single gas open circuit diving, but most recreational diving and shallow surface-supplied diving falls under this mode. [39]

Closed circuit diving implies that the breathing gas is recirculated indefinitely, with carbon dioxide removed and oxygen added, generally to maintain a constant partial pressure, regardless of depth. This is also called constant oxygen partial pressure diving and is a feature of electronically controlled closed circuit rebreathers (eCCR) [39]

Semi-closed circuit diving occurs when the breathing gas mixture is partly recycled. Oxygen partial pressure is maintained at a breathable level by addition of breathing gas at a rate sufficient to make up the losses due to exhaust gas and metabolism. The oxygen concentration is not constant, but varies between predictable limits. The equipment used for this may be called a semi-closed circuit rebreather or a gas extender. [40]

Gas reclaim systems and push-pull diving systems are forms of closed circuit gas recycling equipment used mainly to recover expensive helium based diluent gases. [37] [41] [42]

Surface-oriented (bounce) diving

Commercial divers refer to diving operations where the diver starts and finishes the diving operation at atmospheric pressure as surface-oriented, or bounce diving. [43] The diver may be deployed from the shore or a diving support vessel and may be transported on a diving stage or in a diving bell. Surface-supplied divers almost always wear diving helmets or full-face diving masks. The bottom gas can be air, nitrox, heliox or trimix; the decompression gases may be similar, or may include pure oxygen. [26] Decompression procedures include in-water decompression or surface decompression in a deck chamber. [44] Surface oriented dives may use a transportation platform to move the diver vertically through the water column, may be assisted by an attendant controlling the umbilical, or the diver may control their own descent and ascent. [1] In recreational diving there is no need to make this distinction, as all recreational diving is surface-oriented, usually without decompression stops.

Saturation diving

Saturation diving lets professional divers live and work under pressure for days or weeks at a time. After working in the water, the divers rest and live in a dry pressurised underwater habitat on the bottom or a saturation life support system of pressure chambers at the surface, usually on the deck of a diving support vessel, oil platform or other floating platform, at a similar pressure to the ambient pressure at the work depth. They are transferred between surface accommodation and the underwater workplace in a pressurised closed diving bell. Decompression at the end of the dive may take many days, but since it is done only once for a long period of exposure, rather than after each of many shorter exposures, the overall risk of decompression injury to the diver and the total time spent decompressing are reduced. This type of diving allows greater work efficiency and safety. [5]

Modes of decompression

Decompression is a part of every ambient pressure dive. Modes of decompression range from "no-stop dives" where a limited and controlled ascent rate is sufficient decompression, do decompression from saturation over several days.

Decompression can be continuous, where no stops are required, and the rate of ascent is limited to provide sufficient time to offgas safely, [39] or staged, where ascent is made up to and between stops a limited rate, but most of the offgassing occurs during periods of constant depth, (pressure) called decompression stops. Continuous decompression rates depend on the theoretical gas loading of the controlling tissue, and may be fixed or, more often, variable with depth. [39]

Decompression can also be done entirely in the water, partly in the water and partly in a surface decompression chamber or entirely in one or more decompression chambers. It can also be classified by the type of breathing gases used while decompressing, whether there are changes in gas composition during decompression, and whether the changes are stepwise or continuous, or a combination of both. [39]

Air diving traditionally uses air as breathing gas for the entire dive, including for in-water staged decompression. It is simple, low cost, requires little or no special equipment, but is inefficient and limited to tolerable in-water exposures. [39]

Modes of decompression:

Atmospheric pressure diving

Atmospheric pressure suit and submersible modes
Navy Diver4.jpg
US Navy Atmospheric Diving System (ADS)
Limiting Factor to be prepared for a dive into the Atlantic Ocean.jpg
Full ocean depth rated DSV Limiting Factor prepared for a dive into the Atlantic Ocean

Submersibles and rigid atmospheric diving suits (ADS) enable diving to be carried out in a dry environment at approximately surface atmospheric pressure. An ADS is a small one-person articulated submersible which resembles a suit of armour, with elaborate joints to allow bending, while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere. An ADS can be used for dives of up to about 700 metres (2,300 ft) for many hours. It eliminates the majority of physiological dangers associated with deep diving – the occupant does not need to decompress, there is no need for special gas mixtures, and there is no danger of nitrogen narcosis – at the expense of higher cost, complex logistics and loss of dexterity. [46] [4] Crewed submeribles have been built rated to full ocean depth and have dived to the deepest known points of all the oceans. [47] [48]

Unmanned diving

ROV working on a subsea structure ROV working on a subsea structure.jpg
ROV working on a subsea structure

Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) can carry out some functions of divers. They can be deployed at greater depths and in more dangerous environments. An AUV is a robot which travels underwater without requiring real-time input from an operator. AUVs constitute part of a larger group of unmanned undersea systems, a classification that includes non-autonomous ROVs, which are controlled and powered from the surface by an operator/pilot via an umbilical or using wireless remote control. In military applications AUVs are often referred to as unmanned undersea vehicles (UUVs). [49] [50]

Level of confinement

The level of confinement is associated with physical restrictions to direct vertical ascent at some point of a dive, which is a more immediate problem with scuba, which has a limited breathing gas supply. In open-water diving there is no restriction, while in penetration diving there is an impenetrable restriction.

Open-water diving

Marine scientist coordinates a blue water dive for 4 companions - each at the end of a rope tether and each rope kept taut by a weight and pulley system Expl0470 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg
Marine scientist coordinates a blue water dive for 4 companions - each at the end of a rope tether and each rope kept taut by a weight and pulley system

Open-water diving is diving in an open water environment, where the diver has unrestricted access by way of a direct vertical ascent to the breathable air of the atmosphere. Other environmental hazards may exist which do not affect the classification. In some contexts it also implies that there is no decompression obligation hindering direct ascent. [51] Blue-water diving is open-water diving done in mid-water where the bottom is out of sight of the diver and there may be no fixed visual reference. The techniques of blue-water diving have been developed over the years to suit the conditions and address the hazards of an environment which is functionally bottomless, and has no fixed visible positional references. [52]

Penetration diving

Cave diving Vad lake. 2007.03.14. Cave. Exit.jpg
Cave diving

Penetration diving or overhead diving is diving under a physical overhead of any kind, where for a significant part of the dive it is not possible to ascend vertically to a free breathable air surface. Cave diving, wreck diving, ice diving and diving inside or under other natural or artificial underwater structures or enclosures are examples. The restriction on direct ascent increases the risk of diving under an overhead, and this is usually addressed by adaptations of procedures and use of equipment such as redundant breathing gas sources and guide lines to indicate the route to open water. [53] [54] [55] Surface supplied breathing gas via umbilical both reduces the risk of running out of breathing gas, and of getting lost under an overhead obstruction, as the gas supply umbilical or airline can be followed out to the entrance point, but it does increase the risk of entrapment by snagging on the environment. An underwater tending point may be required at the entrance to the enclosed space . [56] [57]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Code of Practice: Safety and Health at Work for Industrial Diving" (PDF). Honk Kong: Occupational Safety and Health Branch, Labour Department. January 1998.
  2. ↑ "Tutorial – Diving 101: How to Determine Your Diving Mode". Garmin Malaysia. 5 June 2024. Retrieved 9 August 2025– via YouTube.
  3. ↑ Mitchell, Simon J; Bennett, Michael H; Bird, Nick; Doolette, David J; Hobbs, Gene W; Kay, Edward; Moon, Richard E; Neuman, Tom S; Vann, Richard D; Walker, Richard; Wyatt, HA (2012). "Recommendations for rescue of a submerged unresponsive compressed-gas diver". Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine. 39 (6): 1099–108. PMID   23342767.
  4. 1 2 Thornton, Michael Albert (1 December 2000). A Survey and Engineering design of atmospheric diving suits (PDF). Monterey, California: Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2016. Retrieved 28 September 2016.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  5. 1 2 US Navy Diving Manual (2006), Chapter 15 Saturation Diving.
  6. 1 2 Todd, Mike; Holbrook, Mike; Ridley, Gordon; Busuttili, Mike, eds. (1985). "Using basic equipment". Sport diving – The British Sub-Aqua Club Diving Manual. London: Stanley Paul & Co. p. 58. ISBN   978-0-09-163831-3.
  7. ↑ Ostrovsky, Igor. "Aquathon". History of Underwater Sports. World Underwater Federation (CMAS). Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  8. ↑ Ucuzal, Levent. "Apnoea". History of Underwater Sports. Rome: World Underwater Federation (CMAS). Archived from the original on 19 June 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  9. ↑ "Hockey". History of Underwater Sports. World Underwater Federation (CMAS). Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  10. ↑ Wiesner, Rudi. "Rugby". History of Underwater Sports. World Underwater Federation (CMAS). Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  11. ↑ "Spearfishing". History of Underwater Sports. World Underwater Federation (CMAS). Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  12. ↑ North Pacific Acoustic Laboratory: Environmental Impact Statement (Report). Vol. 1. Arlington, Virginia: Office of Naval Research. 2001. pp. 3–45.
  13. ↑ US Navy Diving Manual (2006), Chapter 1 Section 3 Scuba Diving.
  14. ↑ Welham, Michael G. (1989). Combat Frogmen. Cambridge: Patrick Stephens. p. 195. ISBN   978-1-85260-217-8.
  15. ↑ NOAA Diving Manual (2001), Chapter 1 Section 4 Scuba Diving.
  16. 1 2 NOAA Diving Manual (2001), Chapter 5 Diver and Diving Support Equipment.
  17. ↑ NOAA Diving Manual (2001), Chapter 7 Diver and Support Personnel Training.
  18. ↑ NOAA Diving Manual (2001), Chapter 5 Section 4 Emergency Air Supply.
  19. ↑ US Navy Diving Manual (2006), Chapter 17 Section 1 Introduction.
  20. ↑ Code of Practice Inshore Diving (PDF). Pretoria: The South African Department of Labour. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  21. 1 2 Munro, Colin (2013). "Chapter 4. Diving". In Eleftheriou, Anastasios (ed.). Methods for the Study of Marine Benthos (4th ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 125–127. doi:10.1002/9781118542392.ch4. ISBN   978-1-118-54237-8.
  22. ↑ Ledbetter, Carly (22 October 2014). "SNUBA Is Basically Like Scuba Diving Or Snorkeling, But Easier". The Huffington Post. The HuffingtonPost.com. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  23. ↑ "Lifestyle: SNUBA and the Tourism Industry" (PDF). SNUBA International. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
  24. ↑ "Rigging Stage Bottles… How to carry extra scuba tanks… and why". www.tdisdi.com. 17 June 2011. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
  25. ↑ "International Diver Training Certification: Diver Training Standards, Revision 4" (PDF). Diver Training Standards. Malestroit, Brittany: International Diving Schools Association. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
  26. 1 2 3 Imbert, Jean Pierre (February 2006). Lang, Michael A; Smith, N Eugene (eds.). "Commercial Diving: 90m Operational Aspects" (PDF). Advanced Scientific Diving Workshop. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
  27. ↑ IMCA International Code of Practice for Offshore Diving: IMCA D 014 Rev. 2. London: International Marine Contractor's Association. February 2014.
  28. 1 2 Buonfiglio, Giampaolo; Lovatelli, Alessandro (2023). A practical guide on safe hookah diving. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN   978-92-5-137476-4. Archived from the original on 2023-09-29. Retrieved 2023-09-20.
  29. ↑ "Hookah Diving". The Scuba Doctor. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  30. ↑ Barsky, Steven; Neuman, Tom (2003). Investigating Recreational and Commercial Diving Accidents. Santa Barbara, California: Hammerhead Press. ISBN   0-9674305-3-4.
  31. ↑ Jackson, Kristin (1995-01-22). "Snuba Diving Offers A Chance To Experience Rapture Of The Shallows". Seattle Times. Seattle Times Company. Archived from the original on 2012-09-22. Retrieved 2016-09-27.
  32. ↑ "Oceans: Into the Blue". Human Planet. Episode 1. British Broadcasting Corporation. 13 January 2011. BBC One.
  33. ↑ "Air diving system" (PDF). cccuwe.net. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
  34. ↑ "Air Diving – Offshore Construction". adas.org.au. ADAS. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
  35. 1 2 "15: Mixed gas and oxygen diving". The NOAA Diving Manual: Diving for Science and Technology (illustrated ed.). DIANE Publishing. 1992. p. 15.1. ISBN   978-1-56806-231-0 . Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  36. ↑ Lee, D.W.; Jung, S.J.; Ju, J.S. (First Quarter 2020). "The effects of heliox non-saturation diving on the cardiovascular system and cognitive functions". Undersea Hyperb Med. 47 (1): 93–100. doi:10.22462/01.03.2020.10. PMID   32176950.
  37. 1 2 Bevan, John, ed. (2005). "Section 5.3". The Professional Divers's Handbook (second ed.). Gosport, Hampshire: Submex Ltd. p. 238. ISBN   978-0950824260.
  38. ↑ Fogarty, Reilly (4 March 2020). "Playing with Fire: Hydrogen as a Diving Gas". indepthmag.com/. InDepth Magazine. Retrieved 6 January 2025.
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 US Navy (2006). US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision. United States: US Naval Sea Systems Command. Archived from the original on 2 May 2008. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
  40. ↑ "Making Every Breath Count… Again and Again!". www.tdisdi.com. 26 September 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2025.
  41. ↑ "Divex". www.divingheritage.com. Retrieved 21 October 2024.
  42. ↑ "Arawak system". www.therebreathersite.nl. Retrieved 21 October 2024.
  43. ↑ Rekdal, Ole (2004). "Guidelines to activity report for diving operations on the Norwegian continental shelf". Petroleum Safety Authority. Archived from the original (DOC) on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  44. ↑ US Navy Diving Manual (2006), Chapter 9 Air Decompression.
  45. ↑ Doolette, David J.; Mitchell, Simon J. (June 2013). "Recreational technical diving part 2: decompression from deep technical dives". Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine. 43 (2): 96–104. PMID   23813463.
  46. ↑ Thornton, Mike; Randall, Robert E.; Albaugh, E. Kurt (1 January 2001). "Subsea Technology: Atmospheric diving suits bridge gap between saturation diving and ROV units". Offshore Magazine. Tulsa, Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 24 September 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  47. ↑ "Triton 36000/2: Full Ocean Depth". fivedeeps.com. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  48. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (9 September 2019). "US adventurer reaches deepest points in all oceans". BBC News. Archived from the original on 28 June 2023. Retrieved 2019-09-10.
  49. ↑ "ROV Categories – Summary". ROVs. Marine Technology Society. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
  50. ↑ "Robot sub reaches deepest ocean". London: British Broadcasting Corporation. 3 June 2009. Archived from the original on 30 October 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
  51. ↑ "Section 2". Australian Standard AS2815.3-1992, Training and certification of occupational divers, Part 3: Air diving to 50m (2nd ed.). Homebush, New South Wales: Standards Australia. 1992. p. 9. ISBN   0-7262-7631-6.
  52. ↑ Haddock, Stephen H.D.; Heine, John N. (2005). Scientific Blue-Water Diving (PDF). California Sea Grant College Program. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
  53. ↑ Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (PDF). Pretoria: The South African Department of Labour. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  54. ↑ Barsky, Steven (2007). Diving in High-Risk Environments (4th ed.). Ventura, California: Hammerhead Press. ISBN   978-0-9674305-7-7.
  55. ↑ Jablonski, Jarrod (2006). "9: Diving environments". Doing It Right: The Fundamentals of Better Diving. High Springs, Florida: Global Underwater Explorers. p. 137. ISBN   978-0-9713267-0-5.
  56. ↑ "Subchapter 7. General Industry Safety Orders, Group 26. Diving Operations, Article 152. Diving Operations, §6056. Basic Operation Procedures". www.dir.ca.gov. Retrieved 24 September 2025.
  57. ↑ "10 - General diving procedures. Section 10.3 - Divers umbilicals". Guidance for diving supervisors IMCA D 022 (Revision 1 ed.). London, UK: International Marine Contractors Association. August 2016. pp. 10–6.

Sources

  1. US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision. Washington, DC.: US Naval Sea Systems Command. 2006.
  2. Joiner, James T, ed. (28 February 2001). NOAA Diving Manual, Diving for Science and Technology (4th ed.). Silver Spring, Maryland: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, National Undersea Research Program. ISBN   978-0-941332-70-5. CD-ROM prepared and distributed by the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) in partnership with NOAA and Best Publishing Company
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.