History of theology

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The history of theology has manifestations in many different cultures and religious traditions.

Contents

Terminology and connotations

Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco The School of Athens Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg
Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco The School of Athens

Plato used the Greek word theologia (θεολογία) with the meaning "discourse on god" around 380 BCE in Republic, Book ii, Ch. 18 (379a). [1]

The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of academic study, dealing with the motionless, incorporeal reality (as opposed to physica, which deals with corporeal, moving realities). [2] Boethius' definition influenced medieval Latin usage. [3]

It is in this[ which? ] last sense - theology as an academic discipline involving the basis of rational study of Christian teaching - that the term passed into English in the fourteenth century. [4]

From the 17th century onwards, it also became possible to use the term "theology" to refer to study of religious ideas and teachings that are not specifically Christian (e.g., in the term natural theology which denoted theology based on reasoning from natural facts independent of specifically Christian revelation). [5]

"Theology" can also now be used in a derived sense to mean "a system of theoretical principles; an (impractical or rigid) ideology". [6]

Theological development

Indian theology

The earliest theological reflections in Hinduism are found in the Rg Veda, the oldest sacred text. Here, an abstract Supreme Being is acknowledged as self-originating and the source of all phenomena. [7] Vedic gods, including Indra, Varuna, and Vishnu, share common characteristics. They are said to have created the universe, set the sun in the sky, and propped apart heaven and earth. These gods are susceptible to human praise, and their personifications vary. [8]

Hindu theology embraces panentheism, believing that the Supreme Soul (Parmatma) both transcends and pervades the universe. This underlying principle unifies the diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses. While Hinduism appears polytheistic due to its many deities, it is essentially monotheistic, recognising the unity of the divine. [9]

The Bhakti movement (medieval period) emphasized intense devotion to a personal deity. Bhakti theologians like Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya advocated for loving surrender to God. Devotional texts, such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, shaped theological thought by emphasizing devotion, ethics, and the pursuit of moksha (liberation). [8]

Shankara, the founder of Advaita Vedanta, expounded non-dualism (advaita) by asserting that the individual soul (jivatman) is identical to the Supreme Soul (Brahman). This philosophical theology influenced Hindu thought, emphasizing self-realization and the illusory nature of the material world. [8]

In contemporary Hinduism, theologians engage with issues like social justice, environmental ethics, and interfaith dialogue. Theological reflection continues to evolve, drawing from ancient texts, philosophical traditions, and the lived experiences of practitioners. [10]

Christian theology

Christian theology, in scholastics of the Middle Age regarded as "the queen of sciences". [11]

The 16th-century Protestant reformation, in the spirit of Renaissance humanism, paid great attention to the study of biblical text, accompanied by outbursts of popular theology in personal religious fervor. [12]

Recent Christian theological movements include Liberation theology, liberal theology, and fundamentalism.

Islamic theology

From the late 19th century onward, Islamic theology adapted to changing contexts. Scholars in Arab countries, Turkey, Iran, India, Central Asia, and Indonesia, explored diverse theological perspectives. Modern theologians grappled with issues like secularism, pluralism, and the compatibility of Islamic teachings with contemporary life. [13]

See also

Related Research Articles

Hinduism is an Indian religion or dharma, a religious and universal order by which its followers abide. The word Hindu is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, it has also been described as sanātana dharma, a modern usage, based on the belief that its origins lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts. Another endonym for Hinduism is Vaidika dharma.

Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural, but also deals with religious epistemology, asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation. Revelation pertains to the acceptance of God, gods, or deities, as not only transcendent or above the natural world, but also willing and able to interact with the natural world and to reveal themselves to humankind.

Universalism is the philosophical and theological concept that some ideas have universal application or applicability.

Bhakti is a term common in Indian religions which means attachment, fondness for, devotion to, trust, homage, worship, piety, faith, or love. In Indian religions, it may refer to loving devotion for a personal God, a formless ultimate reality or for an enlightened being. Bhakti is often a deeply emotional devotion based on a relationship between a devotee and the object of devotion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhakti movement</span> Medieval Hindu religious movement

The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th century CE, it gained prominence through the poems and teachings of the Vaishnava Alvars and Shaiva Nayanars before spreading northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.

Moksha, also called vimoksha, vimukti, and mukti, is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, liberation, nirvana, or release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha is freedom from ignorance: self-realization, self-actualization and self-knowledge.

Vedanta, also known as Uttara Mīmāṃsā, is one of the six orthodox (āstika) traditions of textual exegesis and Hindu philosophy. The word "Vedanta" means "conclusion of the Vedas", and encompasses the ideas that emerged from, or aligned and reinterpreted, the speculations and enumerations contained in the Upanishads, focusing on either devotion or knowledge and liberation. Vedanta developed into many traditions, all of which give their specific interpretations of a common group of texts called the Prasthānatrayī, translated as "the three sources": the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shaivism</span> Hindu tradition that worships Shiva

Shaivism is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-orientated monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, Shaivism is the second-largest Hindu sect, constituting about 252 million or 26.6% of Hindus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jnana yoga</span> One of three classical paths for moksha in Hinduism

Jnana yoga, also known as the jnanamarga, is one of the three classical paths (margas) for moksha (liberation) in Hinduism, which emphasizes the "path of knowledge", also known as the "path of self-realization". The other two are karma yoga and bhakti yoga. Modern interpretations of Hindu texts have yielded systems, techniques and formulations such as raja yoga and kriya yoga.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ramanuja</span> 12th-century Indian Hindu philosopher

Ramanuja, also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism. His philosophical foundations for devotionalism were influential to the Bhakti movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Madhvacharya</span> 13th century Hindu philosopher who founded Dvaita Vedanta school

Madhvacharya, and also known as Purna Prajna and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the Dvaita (dualism) school of Vedanta. Madhva called his philosophy Tattvavāda meaning "arguments from a realist viewpoint".

<i>Ishvara</i> Hindu epithet

Ishvara is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the context, Ishvara can mean supreme Self, ruler, lord, king, queen or husband. In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or special Self. In Shaivism, Ishvara is an epithet of Shiva. In Vaishnavism it is synonymous with Vishnu, like in his epithet of Venkateswara. In traditional Bhakti movements, Ishvara is one or more deities of an individual's preference (Iṣṭa-devatā) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such as Arya Samaj and Brahmoism, Ishvara takes the form of a monotheistic God. In the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration". In Advaita Vedanta, Ishvara is the manifested form of Brahman.

<i>Smarta</i> tradition Tradition in Hinduism linked to Advaita Vedanta

The Smartatradition, also called Smartism, is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namely Uttara Mīmāṃsā, Advaita, Yoga, and theism. The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism, and is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal – Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu and Surya. The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Shrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals and rites. There has been a considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other significant historic movements within Hinduism, namely Shaivism, Brahmanism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism.

<i>Kurma Purana</i> Medieval era Sanskrit text, one of eighteen major Puranas

The Kurma Purana is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, and a medieval era Vaishnavism text of Hinduism. The text is named after the tortoise avatar of Vishnu.

<i>Shiva Purana</i> Sanskrit scripture

The Shiva Purana is one of eighteen major texts of the Purana genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily revolves around the Hindu god Shiva and goddess Parvati, but references and reveres all gods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">God in Hinduism</span> Hindu conception of God

In Hinduism, the conception of God varies in its diverse religio-philosophical traditions. Hinduism comprises a wide range of beliefs about God and Divinity, such as henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, agnosticism, atheism, and nontheism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sri Vaishnavism</span> One of the major Vaishnava traditions

Sri Vaishnavism is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi, as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who are together revered in this tradition.

Śraddhā is a Sanskrit term often glossed in English as faith. The term figures importantly in the literature, teachings, and discourse of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Sri Aurobindo describes śraddhā as "the soul's belief in the Divine's existence, wisdom, power, love, and grace". Without diacritical marks, it is usually written as shraddha.

<i>Brahman</i> Metaphysical concept, unchanging Ultimate Reality in Hinduism

In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest universal principle, the Ultimate Reality of the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the non-physical, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, infinite, eternal truth, consciousness and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a metaphysical concept refers to the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists.

Hindu denominations, sampradayas, traditions, movements, and sects are traditions and sub-traditions within Hinduism centered on one or more gods or goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and so on. The term sampradaya is used for branches with a particular founder-guru with a particular philosophy.

References

  1. ↑ Liddell, Henry George & Scott, Robert (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon. Revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 667.
  2. ↑ Boethius (2004). "De Trinitate (On the Holy Trinity)" (PDF). Translated by Kenyon, Erik C. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
  3. ↑ Evans, G. R. (1980). Old Arts and New Theology: The Beginnings of Theology as an Academic Discipline. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 31–32.
  4. ↑ See the 'note' in the Oxford English Dictionary entry for 'theology'.
  5. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, sense 1
  6. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, 1989 edition, 'Theology' sense 1(d), and 'Theological' sense A.3; the earliest reference given is from the 1959 Times Literary Supplement 5 June 329/4: "The 'theological' approach to Soviet Marxism ... proves in the long run unsatisfactory."
  7. ↑ Bose, Mandakranta (2015). "Chapter 27: Hinduism". In Thatcher, Adrian (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Theology, Sexuality, and Gender. Oxford University Press. pp. 450–466. ISBN   978-0-19-966415-3 . Retrieved 6 July 2024.
  8. 1 2 3 Gold, Ann G. & Doniger, Wendy (2 July 2024). "Hinduism - Sacred texts - Theology". Britannica.com. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
  9. ↑ "Theology". Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
  10. ↑ Athyal, Jesudas (10 August 2023). "Theology in India". St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology.
  11. ↑ Zakai, Avihu (22 July 2010). "Regina Scientiarum - Theology as the 'Queen of Sciences'". Jonathan Edwards's Philosophy of Nature: The Re-enchantment of the World in the Age of Scientific Reasoning. T & T Clark theology. London: A&C Black (published 2010). p. 56. ISBN   978-0-56722-650-1 . Retrieved 19 July 2021. [...] in the medieval scholastic world, theology was defined as the "Queen of Sciences" [...].
  12. ↑ Whitney, James Pounder (1907). The History of the Reformation (reprint ed.). S.P.C.K. (published 1958). p. 36. Retrieved 19 July 2021. In the Middle Ages, as at all times, popular theology had on many points outrun authorised theology: the fifteenth century was overladen both in bold speculations and practical details by the results of past generations.
  13. ↑ Wielandt, Rotraud (2015). "Chapter 40: Main Trends of Islamic Theological Thought from the Late Nineteenth Century to Present Times". In Schmidtke, Sabine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford University Press. pp. 707–764. ISBN   978-0-19-969670-3 . Retrieved 6 July 2024.
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